3. The God Rudra-Śiva: His Prominence

In the Ṛgvedic period, Rudra is depicted as a minor deity. In the Ṛgveda, three entire hymns (Ṛgveda, 1. 43; 114; 2.33) are dedicated to Rudra. He is celebrated in a part of another (Ṛgveda, 7.46) and in one jointly with Soma (Ṛgveda, 6.74). But at the time of the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda, he has occupied a prominent position. He is extolled as a prominent god in the Upaniṣadic literature. In the later literature, i.e. Epic-Purāṇic, this deity has come to be designated as Śiva and thus Rudra, whose position Śiva usurps in the post-Vedic period, is highly eulogized as a prominent god.

According to Yāska, Rudra is the deity of the middle region (madhyasthānādevatā).^[1] There has been difference of opinion among the Vedic scholars, in respect of the exact interpretation of the meaning of the term rudra.

Yāska in his Nirukta has given the etymological meaning of the term rudra as—

rudra rautīti sataḥ, rorūyamāṇo dravatīti vā rodayatervā |
yadarudattadrudrasya rudratvaṃ iti kāthakam |
yadarodittadrudrasya rudrattvaṃ iti hāridravikam.

Rudra is called so because he cries again and again and sheds tears or he who makes weep.^[2]

Sāyaṇācārya in his commentary on Ṛgveda 1.114.1 derives the word rudra in as many as six different ways.

Mahīdhara, a commentator of Śuklayajurveda also explains the term rudra as—

rut duḥkhaṃ drāvayati rudraḥ | yadvā ‘ru gatau’ ye gatyarthāste jñānārthāḥ | ravaṇaṃ rut jñānaṃ rāti dadāti rudraḥ jñānaṃ bhāve kvip tugāgamaḥ | rut jñānapradaḥ | yadvā pāpino narān duḥkhabhogena rodayati rudraḥ.^[3]

It can be said that rut means worldly pain and one who removes the pain or grief is called Rudra. Or ru means ‘go’. Which dhātu is used in the sense of ‘go’ that also used in the sense of know. Rut means knowledge. One who gives the knowledge is called Rudra. Rut signifies the bestower of knowledge. One who makes the sinners cry by giving pain is called Rudra.

In the Bṛhaddevatā of Śaunaka, Rudra is said to be a name of Indra.^[4] Since he (Indra) roared in the atmospheric region showering rain with lightning to men, he is praised by four seers as Rudra.

Here, it is said that three entire hymns are dedicated to Rudra in the Ṛgveda and a part of a fourth. In one hymn, he is invoked jointly with Soma. His name appears about 75 times in the Ṛgveda. In the Ṛgveda, Rudra is depicted as a malevolent deity. His destructive character is revealed very clearly in this Veda. His anger, ill-will and destructive shafts are deprecated by his worshippers. The devotees earnestly supplicate him thus—“O Rudra, do not harm us, our sons and grandsons, our cows and horses, our heroes. We invoke you by offering haviḥ (oblation).”^[5] But without speaking of his benevolent character it cannot be concluded. He is invoked as Mīḍhva or beneficent,^[6] Śiva or auspicious.^[7] In the Purāṇic literature, it is found that Rudra becomes an appellation of Śiva.^[8] His devotees wish to live a hundred winters by his favourable medicines and he is also implored to remove all diseases from his worshippers by his auspicious medicines.^[9]

The vastness of Rudra has been very clearly revealed in the Vājasaneyisaṃhitā. The name of the sixteenth chapter of the Vājasaneyisaṃhitā is Śatarudriya. This chapter consists of 66 mantras and these are dedicated to disclose the exceptional features of Rudra. In this chapter, numerous names are attributed to Rudra. Here, he is treated as Bhagavān in the Vājasaneyisaṃhitā.^[10] In this Saṃhitā, for the first time Rudra is said to be the resident of western direction.^[11] Here, for the first time a reference has been found where Rudra’s residing place is referred to as Mūjavat mountain.^[12] Uvaṭa clears the statement that mūjavānnāmaparvataḥ bhagavato rudrasya vasatiḥ tām.^[13] He is the physician of cattle, horse and men^[14] and the reliever from binding.^[15] He is also known as Nīlagrīva, Śitikaṇṭha,^[16] Paśupati, Ugra, Bhīma^[17] Śaṅkara,^[18] Kapardin.^[19] In the Epic-Purāṇic literature, most of these appellations are also attributed to lord Śiva. In the Taittirīya Saṃhitā, Agni’s dreadful body is said to be similar to the horrible nature of Rudra.^[20] Rudra’s superiority has been revealed by a line where it is stated that—there is only one Rudra, no second one.^[21]

In the Atharvaveda, Rudra occupies an important position. A reference has been found in the Atharvaveda, where the universal form of Rudra has been seen. Rudra is said to be present everywhere, i.e. in fire, water, herbs and all beings.^[22] In this relevant mantra, Sāyaṇācārya also comments that he is the creator of this universe.^[23] In another reference, Takman or fever and Kāśikā or cough are referred to as his weapon in the form of disease.^[24] It is said that he kills the wicked person by infecting him with these diseases.

In the Brāhmaṇa literature, there are some stories regarding his (Rudra’s) birth. Here, he is attributed by a new name Mṛgavyādha.^[25] Eight forms of him are mentioned as Śarva, Bhava, Bhīma, Ugra, Īśāna, Paśupati, Mahādeva, Aśani. The name Śarva denotes water, Ugra is wind, Aśani is lightning, Bhava is parjanya, Paśupati is plant, Īśāna is sun, Mahādeva is moon and Prajāpati.^[26] From this reference it can be understood that the whole world is created by these eight forms of Rudra. In the Gopatha Brāhmaṇa, a reference has been occurred in the context of Tryambaka Homa where it is stated that the sacrificer performs taking a view to satisfy Rudra in his own direction, i.e. north direction.^[27]

In the Āraṇyaka literature, Rudra is identified with Brahman. He is depicted as all in all. His position is developed more in this period. He is depicted as the lord and the one who is greater than this entire world or the root cause of the world.^[28] He has five faces in five directions.^[29] He is referred to as Brahmanodhipati.^[30] According to Sāyaṇācārya, brahman means hiraṇyagarbha.^[31] Hiraṇyagarbha is another name of Prajāpati. So, from this commentary of Sāyaṇācārya, it is clear that Rudra is Prajāpati. Rudra’s identification with Brahman in the Āraṇyakas leads to the concept of the identification of Rudra with the Ultimate Reality as portrayed in the Upaniṣadic literature.

The Upaniṣadic literature delineates the supremacy of Rudra in detail. In the Upaniṣads, Rudra is extolled in the highest position. Rudra is present in all beings. Rudra is called by several names in this literature. His universal form is established in the Upaniṣadic literature also. He is the ruler and protector of this world,^[32] lord of all.^[33] He is identified with prāṇa.^[34] He is superior to others. Nothing is higher as well as greater than him.^[35] In the Upaniṣads, he is invoked as a Supreme or Ultimate Reality.

In the Sūtra literature, Rudra is invoked to protect from various types of disasters. His physician character is revealed in the Lāṭyāyana Śrautasūtra.^[36] He is declared by some names, i.e. Bhūtapati, Bhuvanapati, Bhuvapati etc.^[37] The Śāṅkhāyana Śrautasūtra states that if a person’s whose relatives are suffering from physical illness, he should perform a sacrifice to Rudra.^[38] Rudra is prayed as a protective god. People invoke him to save themselves from various situations, diseases, calamities. In the Hiraṇyakeśi Gṛhyasūtra, it is said that if a person comes to a cross-road, he must pay reverence to Rudra.^[39]

The functions and characteristics which are ascribed to Rudra in the Vedic literature are attributed to Śiva in the post-Vedic literature. The Purāṇas extol Śiva as the third member of the Hindu Triad. In the Ṛgvedic period, Rudra’s destructive character is depicted very clearly. But in the later literature, i.e. the Atharvavedic period, Upaniṣadic and Purāṇic period, his benevolent characters have been revealed. The functions of destruction, those which are related to Rudra are now ascribed to Śiva. There is a reference in the Śiva Purāṇa, where Rudra and Śiva are considered as the same. No difference has been found between them.^[40] In the Śiva Purāṇa, it is stated that he is called Brahman because he is huge and he expands his existence.^[41] Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Rudra are his different manifestations.^[42]

In the Purāṇas, there are a number of epithets for lord Śiva of which Rudra is one of them.^[43] In order to look after the five-fold activities, lord Śiva has five faces. His four faces are in the four directions and fifth face is in the middle.^[44] These five-fold activities are creation, maintenance, annihilation, concealment and blessing.^[45] He is beyond the nature. He keeps nature, just as he pleases. Just as a boy drinks water as he pleases. He is called Śiva because he brought it under his control.^[46] Śarva, Bhava, Rudra, Ugra, Bhīma, Īśvara, Mahādeva and Paśupati are different names of Śiva. These forms are worshipped with his eight cosmic bodies. These eight bodies are—earth, water, fire, wind, ether, sun, moon and sacrificer respectively.^[47] Iconographical description of god Śiva shows that his image should be prepared with five faces and three eyes. His physical appearance is very attractive. He is said to be white complexioned. He has braided hair and blue neck. Śiva’s body is covered with ashes.^[48] He carries a trident in his hand^[49] and he holds Gaṅgā on his head and a crescent moon on his forehead^[50] and the tiger’s hide as his upper cloth.^[51] The various aspects of the image of Śiva can be properly endorsed with the Vedic material evidences.

In the Rāmāyaṇa, Rudras are said to be the son of Kaśyapa and Aditi.^[52] Mahādeva is referred to as Śitikaṇṭha^[53] and Trilocana^[54] In another context of the Rāmāyaṇa, Śiva has a half-closed eyes and he is regarded as lord of the entire world. Śiva uses a bull as his vehicle.^[55]

In the Mahābhārata, the names of the eleven Rudras are mentioned as—

1. Mṛgavyādha,
2. Śarva,
3. Nirṛti,
4. Ajaikapāt,
5. Ahirbudhnya,
6. Pinākī,
7. Dahana,
8. Īśvara,
9. Kapālī,
10. Sthānu and
11. Bhava.^[56]

Thousand names of Śiva has been mentioned here.^[57] Some of them are—Jaṭī, Carmī, Śikhaṇḍī, Śmaśānavāsī, Mahārūpo, Mahākāyo, Vṛṣarūpa, Candra, Sūrya, Śani, Nīlakaṇṭha, Umāpati, Gaṇapati, Hara, Kamaṇḍaludhara, Dhanvī, Harikeśa etc.^[58]

The Purāṇic Encyclopaedia mentions that Rudra is a form of Śiva. Brahmā begot Rudra. During the origin of creation, Brahmā created four sons, viz. Sanandana, Sanaka, Sanātana and Sanatkumāra. They were not interested in the creation. Seeing this, Brahmā became very angry and out of anger wanted to destroy the three worlds. The three worlds became illuminated in the brightness emerging from the violent anger or fierceness of Brahmā. Then from his gleaming eye-brow, a shining figure originated. This figure was Rudra. By the command of Brahmā, Rudra divided his body into two parts, i.e. half man and half female. He again divided his body into eleven parts. They are known as eleven Rudras, viz. Manyu, Manu, Mahīnasa, Mahān, Śiva, Ṛtudhvaja, Ugraretas, Bhava, Kāma, Vāmadeva and Dhṛtavrata.^[59]

In another place of the Purāṇic Encyclopaedia, it is mentioned that lord Śiva confers boon to his devotees. There are some names who had earned boons from Śiva—Siṃhavaktra, Rukmī, Bāṇa, Sudakṣina, Sālva, Ratidevī, Indrajit, Bhṛgu, Gāndhārī, Jarāsandha, Bhagīratha etc.^[60]

The Purāṇic Encyclopaedia mentions that when the two Asuras named Madhu and Kaiṭabha came to kill Brahmā, Viṣṇu became very angry with them (Asuras) and from his eye-brow Śiva was born (Mahābhārata, 3.12).^[61]

The Amarakośa explains the word Rudra as an epithet of Śiva. In the Amarakośa, forty-eight names of lord Śiva have been mentioned.^[62] Here, he is known as Jaṭājuṭa and Kaparda. The names of his bow are mentioned as Pināka and Ajagava.^[63] In the Amarakośa, the number of Rudras is stated as eleven and they are called as Gaṇadevatā.^[64]

The Śabdakalpadruma mentions so many names of Śiva. Such as—Śambhu, Īśa, Paśupati, Īśvara, Sarva, Īśāna, Śaṅkara, Bhūteśa, Candraśekhara, Giriśa, etc. Śiva is called as Brahman or Supreme Reality.

The Śabdakalpadruma mentions the derivative meaning of the term Śiva as furnished in the commentary of the Amarakośa thus—

śivaṃ kalyāṇaṃ vidyate’sya śivaḥ | śyati aśubhamiti vā |
śerate’vatiṣṭhante aṇimādayo’ṣṭau guṇā asmin iti vā śivaḥ.^[65]

Kālidāsa is an ardent devotee of lord Śiva. So, in his every literary creation, description of Śiva has been found. The maṅgalācaraṇa verse of the Raghuvaṃśa and Vikramorvaśīya starts with the mention of lord Śiva. In the Vikramorvaśīya, he is depicted as sthāṇu.^[66] In the Meghadūta, it is stated that Śiva uses a white bull as his vehicle.^[67] Śiva resides in the famous mountain, Kailāsa.^[68] Another reference has been found where Śiva is said to reside in the outer garden of Kubera.^[69] There is a reference in the Meghadūta where Yakṣa requested to the cloud to visit the residence of the husband of Caṇḍī who is the lord of the three worlds.^[70] Śiva is described as having three-eyes.^[71] He wears elephant’s hide and a term nṛtya indicates the Tāṇḍava nṛtya of Śiva.^[72] In this context, Mallinātha, a classical commentator remarks that paśupateḥ śivasya nṛttārambhe tāṇḍavaprārambhe.^[73] Śiva’s forehead is adorned with the new moon.^[74]

Thus, in the Vedic and Purāṇic literature, Rudra-Śiva is delineated as a god above all other gods.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

athāto madhyasthānā devatāḥ. tāsāṃ vāyuḥ prathamagāmī bhavati | vāyurvātervetervā...rudro rautīti sataḥ.... || Ibid., 10.1-5

[2]:

Ibid., 10.5

[3]:

Mahīdhara on Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, 16.1

[4]:

arodīdantarikṣe yad vidyudvṛṣṭiṃ dadannṛṇām | caturbhirṛṣibhistena rudra ityabhisaṃstutaḥ || Bṛhaddevatā, 2.34

[5]:

mā nastoke tanaye mā no āyau mā no goṣu mā no aśveṣu rīriṣaḥ | vīrānmā no rudra bhāmito vadhīrhaviṣmantaḥ sadamitvā havāmahe || Ṛgveda, 1.114.8

[6]:

aśyāma te sumatiṃ devayajyayā kṣayadvīrasya tava rudra mīḍhvaḥ | Ibid., 1.114.3

[7]:

yebhiḥ śivaḥ svavān evayāvabhirdivaḥ siṣakti svayaśā nikāmabhiḥ || Ibid., 10.92.9

[8]:

Liṅga-purāṇa, 1.18.21;Vāyu-purāṇa,1.27.6;2.35.164;Śiva-purāṇa,4.35.1; Brahmāṇḍa-purāṇa, 1.10.7

[9]:

tvādattebhī rudra śantamebhiḥ śataṃ himā aśīya bheṣajebhiḥ | vya’smaddveṣo vitaraṃ vyaṃho vyamīvāścātayasvā viṣūcīḥ || Ṛgveda, 2.33.2

[10]:

Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, 16.53

[11]:

indraghoṣastvā vasubhiḥ purastātpātu pracetāstvā rudraiḥ paścātpātu...yajñānniḥ sṛjāmi || Ibid., 5.11

[12]:

etatte rudrāvasaṃ tena paro mūjavato’tīhi | Ibid., 3.61

[13]:

Uvaṭa, Ibid.

[14]:

bheṣajamasi bheṣajaṃ gave’śvāya puruṣāya bheṣajam | Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, 3.59

[15]:

Ibid., 3.60

[16]:

Ibid., 16.57

[17]:

Ibid., 16.40

[18]:

Ibid., 16.41

[19]:

Ibid., 16.10

[20]:

rudraśabdena taddharmo ghoratvaṃ lakṣate | ...agneḥ ghorā tanūḥ yat rudravadghorasvabhāvatvaṃ...| Bhaṭṭabhāskaramiśra on Taittirīya-saṃhitā, 2.2.28

[21]:

...yacchaika eva rudro na dvitīyāya...|| Taittirīya-saṃhitā, 1.8.6.10

[22]:

Atharvaveda-saṃhitā, 7.87.1

[23]:

tasmai sarvajagatsraṣṭre sarvaṃ jagad anupraviṣṭāya rudrāya rudrātmane agnaye namaḥ…| Sāyaṇa, Ibid.

[24]:

Atharvaveda-saṃhitā, 11.2.12

[25]:

Aitareya-brāhmaṇa, 13.9.33

[26]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 1.1.3.7-17

[27]:

Gopatha-brāhmaṇa, 2.1.25

[28]:

Taittirīya-āraṇyaka, 10.10.3

[29]:

Ibid., 10.43-47

[30]:

Ibid., 10.47.1

[31]:

brahmanaḥ hiraṇyagarbhasya... | Sāyaṇa, Ibid.

[32]:

pratyaṅjanānstiṣṭhati saṃcukopāntakāle saṃsṛjya viśvā bhuvanāni gopāḥ || Śvetāśvatara-upaniṣad, 3.2

[33]:

Ibid., 4.13

[34]:

Praśna-upaniṣad, 2.9

[35]:

Śvetāśvatara-upaniṣad, 3.9

[36]:

Lāṭyāyana-śrautasūtra, 5.3.2

[37]:

Śāṅkhāyana-śrautasūtra, 4.20.1

[38]:

byādhiptāye rudrāya | Ibid., 3.8.4

[39]:

Hiraṇyakeśī-gṛhyasūtra, 1.5.16.8

[40]:

śivarūpaṃ mamaitañca rudro’pi śivavattadā || na tatra parabhedo vai kartavyaśca mahāmune || vastuto hyekarūpaṃ hi dvidhā bhinnaṃ jagatyuta || ato na bhedā vijñeyaḥ śive rudre kadācana || Śiva-purāṇa, 2.1.9.33-34

[41]:

bṛhatvādbṛṃhaṇatvācca brahmāhambrahmakeśavau || Ibid., 1.9.37

[42]:

paraṃ brahma śivaḥ proktastasya rūpāstrayaḥ surāḥ || ahaṃ viṣṇuśca rudraśca guṇabhedānurūpataḥ || Ibid., 2.1.16.48

[43]:

Liṅga-purāṇa, 1.18.21; Vāyu-purāṇa, 1.27.6; 2.35.164; Śiva-purāṇa,4.35.1; Brahmāṇḍa-purāṇa, 1.10.7

[44]:

Śiva-purāṇa, 1.10.9

[45]:

sṛṣṭiḥ sthitiśca saṃhārastirobhāva’pyanugrahaḥ || pañcaiva me jagatkṛtyaṃ nityasiddhamajācyutau || Ibid., 1.10.2

[46]:

...maheśo hi prakṛteḥ paratoyataḥ || pibativāthavamatijīvanbālojalaṃyathā || śivastathā prakṛtyādi vaśīkṛtyādhitiṣṭhati || sarvaṃvaśīkṛtyaṃyasmāttasmācchiva iti smṛtaḥ || Ibid., 1.18.10-11

[47]:

kṣitirāponalovāyurākāśaḥ sūryosomakau || yajamāna iti tvaṣṭaumūrtayaḥ parikīrtitāḥ || śarvobhavaśca rudraśca ugrobhīmaitīśvaraḥ || mahādevaḥ paśupatiretānmūrtibhirarcayet || Ibid., 1.21.46-47

[48]:

pañcavaktrastrinayano bhālacandro jaṭādharaḥ || gauravarṇo viśālākṣo bhasmoddhūlitavigrahaḥ || daśabāhurnīlagala...bhasmatripuṇḍrāṅkitamastakaḥ || Ibid., 2.1.9.2-3

[49]:

pañcavaktraḥ prasannātmā daśabāhustriśūladhṛk || Ibid., 2.1.6.26

[50]:

śīrṣe mandākinīdhārī bhālacandrastrilocanaḥ || Ibid., 2.1.6.25

[51]:

sarvābharaṇasaṃyuktaṃ vyāghracarmottarīyakam || Ibid., 2.1.11.35

[52]:

ādityā vasavo rudrā aśvinau ca paraṃtapa | ditistvajanayatputrāndaityānstāta yaśasvinaḥ || Rāmāyaṇa, 3.13.15

[53]:

tasya saṃkrīḍamānasya mahādevasya dhīmataḥ | śitikaṇṭhasya devasya divyaṃ varṣaśataṃ gatam || Ibid., 1.36.6

[54]:

tadasmākaṃ hitārthāya jahi tāṃśca trilocana | Ibid., 7.6.27

[55]:

saḍardhanayanaḥ śrīmān mahādevo vṛṣadhvajaḥ | kartā sarvasya lokasya brahmā brahmavidāṃ varaḥ || Rāmāyaṇa, 5.117.3

[56]:

mṛgavyādhaśca śarvaśca nirṛtiśca mahāyaśāḥ || ajaikapādahirbudhnyaḥ pinākī ca parantapaḥ || dahano’theśvaraścaiva kapālī ca mahādyutiḥ | sthāṇurbhavaśca bhagavān rudrā ekādaśa smṛtāḥ || Mbh, 1.67.2-3

[57]:

Ibid., 12.285;13.17

[58]:

Ibid., 13.17

[59]:

cf., Mani, Vettam, Purāṇic Encyclopaedia, p.654

[60]:

Ibid., pp.724-725

[61]:

Ibid., p.724

[62]:

śambhurīśaḥ paśupatiḥ śivaḥ śūlī maheśvaraḥ | īśvaraḥ śarva īśānaḥ śaṅkaraścandraśekharaḥ | bhūteśaḥ khaṇḍaparaśurgirīśo giriśo mṛḍaḥ mṛtyunjayaḥ kṛttivāsāḥ pinākī pramathādhipaḥ | ugraḥ kapardī śrīkaṇṭhaḥ śitikaṇṭhaḥ kapālabhṛt | vāmadevo mahādevo birūpākṣastrilocanaḥ | kṛśānuretāḥ sarvajño dhūrjatirnīlalohitaḥ | haraḥ smaraharo bhargastryambakastripurāntakaḥ | gaṅgādharo’ndhakaripuḥ kratudhvaṅsī vṛṣadhvajaḥ | vyomkeśo bhavo bhīmaḥ sthāṇū rudra umāpatiḥ || Amarakośa, 1.32-36

[63]:

kapardo’sya jaṭājuṭaḥ pināko’jagavaṃ dhanuḥ | Ibid., 1.37

[64]:

rudrāśca gaṇadevatā || Amarakośa, 1.10

[65]:

Radhakanta Dev Bahadur, Śabdakalpadruma, Part-IV, p.88

[66]:

Vikramorvaśiya, 1.1

[67]:

Meghadūta, 1.55

[68]:

Ibid., 1.63

[69]:

Ibid., 1.7

[70]:

bhartuḥ kaṇṭhacchaviriti gaṇaiḥ sādaraṃ vīkṣyamāṇaḥ | puṇyaṃ yāyāstribhuvanagurordhāma caṇḍīśvarasya | Ibid., 1.36

[71]:

Ibid., 1.55

[72]:

nṛttārambhe hara paśupaterārdranāgājinecchām | śāntodvegastimitanayanaṃ dṛṣṭabhaktirbhavānyā || Ibid., 1.39

[73]:

Mallinātha’s commentary on Meghadūta, 1.39

[74]:

rakṣāhetornavaśaśibhṛtā vāsavīnāṃ camūnāmatyādityaṃ hutavahamukhe sabhṛtaṃ taddhitejaḥ || Meghadūta, 1.46