Concluding Remarks

In this chapter we have seen that elephants were an important commodity in early India and even later. Equally important were the tusks and also small pieces of ivory which were obtained as a result of regular cutting of tusks. In this context we have also discussed Kalpanāratnam which is a text on cutting of the tusk of elephants. The text being composed by a ruler reflects the significance of this act of cutting off of the tusks at regular intervals. We have also discussed that catching of elephants was a very elaborate affair and it not only required huge skilled man power, pre and post operation arrangement but also was an extremely expensive affair. Hence mostly these were done under royal patronage and indulgence. The elephants which were captured were classified and some domesticated or trained and could fetch huge sum of money. Often the rulers exchanged these with other animals like horses. Such a reference is found in Udyotan Suri’s Kuvalayamālā where the ruler of Kosala bought horses from a trader and as payment gave him elephants. The trader claims to have earned good profit out of this deal. Detailed survey of epigraphic data reflects a queer silence on trading in either elephants or elephant products. This in turn reflects a highly organised state intervention in the buying and selling of elephants and it’s by products.

Trade in elephants, ivory and other associated products were highly productive. Trade in elephants and ivory has been addressed by several scholars in the past. Trautmann also discusses to some extent the trade in elephants and the people involved in this trade. Here we have further elaborated the minor steps involved and persons expected to participate in the process of capture and trade. We have tried to map the areas where elephants were abundantly available and also the process of procuring elephants, classifying them and training them for fetching good price. We have also tried to identify the people involved in the elephant trade and also in the procurement of ivory. This was a major desideratum since this is not discussed in any ancient text the attempt to reconstruct the process has not be made yet.

There are a few stages through which elephants were procured for trade. Here we have mapped this process which has been provided below in the form of multiple charts.

Understanding or mapping the demand for elephants: A communicator who would communicate the demand to the catchers. No specific term has been found for such a communicator or intermediary. Following table shows the pre-capture process, its preparation and persons involved with it.

[Table 5: Pre-Capture process, preparations and persons involve]

People involved	Term/ Terms	Work assigned	References
Elephant herdsmen (Mātaṅgalīlā, Chapter X, v. 4)	Hastipā	Making of pen for catching elephants and catch desirable elephants and lead them to first-class elephant herders	Mātaṅgalīlā (Chapter X, v. 5) mentions about another group of superior herders (hastipendrai)
Forest people	aṭavi	Presumably supplier of the information of elephant herds	Arthaśāstra (2.2.6)
Elephant catchers	Kuñjaragraha, nāgabandhaka	Directly involved in this process	Lexicon of Amarasiṃha and others
Nooser	Phāndi	Uses the noose to catch the wild elephant	Mātaṅgalīā
Elephant-drivers	Yantustaṃ vidyād, matimāna, adhoraṇa	Led trained elephants to wild herd to capture them	Arthaśāstra, Mātaṅgalīlā, Gajaśāstra
Tool-makers	No specific term used	Engaged in the precapture process	Mātaṅgalīlā, X	Chapter
Socket makers	No specific term used	Made trapping pen	Mātaṅgalīlā, X	Chapter
Cutters of the cords of socket	No specific term used	Cut cords of the socket	Mātaṅgalīlā, X	Chapter
Suppliers of wood	No specific term used	Supplied woods for catching technics	Mātaṅgalīlā, X	Chapter
Suppliers of food	No specific term used	Supplied tempting fruits etc. for trapping elephants	Mātaṅgalīlā, X	Chapter
Suppliers of seductive materials	No specific term used	Supplied seductive herbs etc. vaśālobhana technic	Mātaṅgalīlā, X	Chapter
Ointment makers	No specific term used	Made seductive ointment and medicinal ointment	Mātaṅgalīlā, X	Chapter
Herders with crowd	No specific term	They shouted and took elephant herd towards the trap	Mātaṅgalīlā, X	Chapter
Rope and noose makers	No specific term used	They make rope and noose to catch elephants	Mātaṅgalīlā, X	Chapter
Hole makers or yielders	No specific term used	Made hole specially in the āpāta and avapāta trapping technic	Mātaṅgalīlā, X	Chapter

[Table 6: Elephant catchers and their associates]

People involved	Term/ Terms	Work assigned	Remarks	Reference
Elephant catchers	Kuñjaragraha, nāgabandhaka	Catching elephants		Lexicons of Amarasiṃha and others
Expert identifiers with knowledge of technique	No specific term (probably the same as above)	Identifying and classifying elephants according to their qualities and characters	This was probably a group which included elephant experts, identifiers, elephant catchers and assistants	All elephant treatises mentioned about this group
Veterinary doctors	Hasti vaidya	They were present at precapture.	However their work would begin once the animal was captured.	Arthaśāstra, Gajaśāstra
Elephant driver	Adhoraṇa	Led the trained elephants to seduce and catch wild elephants, took them to stall.		Arthaśāstra
Nooser	phāndi	Uses the noose to catch the wild elephant		Mātaṅgalīlā, Chapter X
Drummers	No specific term	Involved at the time of capturing process		Mātaṅgalīlā, Chapter X

[Table 7: Capturing activity, creation of elephant reserves (hasti vana) and small abode]

People involved	Term/ Terms	Work assigned	Reference	Remarks
Superintendent/ overseer of elephant-forests	Nāgavanādhyakṣa	Head of the elephant forests	Arthaśāstra, 2.2.10
Elephant catchers	Kuñjaragraha, Nāgabandhaka	Directly involved in catching elephants	Lexicons of Amarasiṃha and others
Guards of the elephant forest	Nāgavanapāla	Protected the elephant forest	Arthśāstra, 2.2.7
Superintendent of elephants	Hastyādhyakṣa	Head of the department of royal elephants	Arthśāstra, 2.31.1
Supervisor of elephants	Nāgādhyakṣa	Skilled elephantsupervisor	Mātaṅgalīlā, Chapter XII, v. 1
Elephant keeper	Hastipaka	Associated with Nāgavanapāla	Arthśāstra, 2.2.10
Elephant rider	Hastyārahaka	Associated with Nāgavanapāla	Arthśāstra, 2.2.7
Elephants driver	Adhoraṇa		Arthśāstra, 2.32.16
Fodder giver	Yāvasika		Arthśāstra, 2.32.16
Stall guard	Kuṭīrakṣa	He guards the elephant stall	Arthśāstra, 2.32.16
Expert identifiers with knowledge of technique	No specific term	This was probably a group which included elephant experts, identifiers, elephant catchers and assistants	Mātaṅgalīlā
Veterinary doctors	Hasti vaidya	They were present precapture.	Texts and inscriptions refer them	However their work would begin once the animal was captured.
A veterinary medical-man	Hastyāyurvedaparāyaṇo	Also wellequipped in elephant science	Many texts refer them	Probably played important role both in pre and post capturing process
An officer in charge	Gajagrahāya saciva	Engaged in tying the captured elephants to posts	Many texts refer them
Foot chainer	Pādapāśika	Chaining the captured elephants	Arthśāstra, 2.32.16
Suppliers of water	No specific term			According to the necessity of the maintenance of elephants this post is presumable
Professional grass cutters	No specific term			According to the necessity of the maintenance of elephants this post is presumable
Grass supplier	No specific term			According to the necessity of the maintenance of elephants this post is presumable
Cook	Vidhāpācaka	Cooked food for elephants	Arthaśāstra, 2.32.16
Stable creators	No specific term	Made stable comfortable for elephants	All treatises on elephant referred it
People involved	Term/ Terms	Work assigned	Reference	Remarks
Elephant tamers (in-charge of domesticating)	No specific term	Domesticated elephants	Mātaṅgalīlā, Chapter XII, v. 2
Elephantmanager	No specific term	Skilled in method of training	Mātaṅgalīlā Chapter XII, v. 2
Elephant trainers	Anīkastha		Arthaśāstra, 2.32.16
Forest people	aṭavi		Arthśāstra, 2.2.10
Border guards	Sainika		Arthśāstra, 2.2.10
Forest rangers	Vanacaraka		Arthśāstra, 2.2.10
Attendant	Pārikarmika		Arthśāstra, 2.2.10
Night attendant	Upaśāyika	Who guard the stable or elephants at night.	Arthaśāstra, 2.32.16
Record keepers of elephants (not mentioned in any other text other than Arthaśāstra)	No specific term used	Maintain the written record of wild and domesticated elephants– “nibandena vidyu”	Arthaśāstra, 2.2.11

[Table 8: Post capture activities and people involved: Sending them to the elephant reserved]

People involved		Term/ Terms	Work assigned		Reference
Group of superior herders		Hastipendrai	Moved trapped elephants gently from one to another post		Mātaṅgalīlā (Chapter X, v. 5)
The inhabitant of a forest		Aṭavi	Involved in guarding material forests and elephant forests		Arthaśāstra (2.2.6)
People involved		Term/ Terms	Work assigned		Reference
Elephant keeper	forest	Nāgavanapāla	Assisted Superintendent of elephants to protect the elephant forest		Arthaśāstra (2.2.7)
Attendant		Pārikarmika	Protected elephant forest	the	Arthaśāstra (2.2.10)
Guard		Nāgavanapāla	Protected elephant forest	the	Arthaśāstra (2.2.7)
Border guard		Saimika	Protected boundary of elephant forest	the the	Arthaśāstra (2.2.10)
Forest ranger		Vanacaraka			Arthaśāstra (2.2.)
Foot chainer		Pādapāśika	Bind the chain in foot of domesticated elephants		Arthaśāstra (2.2.10)
Overseer of elephantforests		Nāgavanādhyakṣa	Protector of elephantforest (Nāgavana)		Arthaśāstra (2.2.7)

[Table 9: People involved in making By-products]

People involved	Term/ Terms	Work assigned	Reference
Ivory worker	Dantakāra	Related to elephant tusks and played important role in ivory trade	Inscription form sculptural panel of Vidisa
Chank and ivory cutter	śaṅkha-valayakāramahattara	People who cut ivory or chank to make luxury products those took prime role in import export trade	Mahāvastu
Ink maker	No specific term used	There were no direct mention of the people engaged in this process but epigraphic source indicates to them	The Rewa stone inscription of Karṇa of the year 8
Physicians	Vaidyas	Medicines made from elephant milk, curd, ghee etc.	Suśruta-Saṃhitā, (Sūtrasthāna)

[Table 10: Traders and others]

People involved	Term/ Terms	Work assigned	Reference
Buyers	Kretu	Involved in elephant trade	Mātaṅgalīlā Chapter 7
Sellers	Vikretu	Involved in elephant trade	Mātaṅgalīlā Chapter 7

[Table 11: From literature to epigraphs: Elephant trade and taxes]

Purposes	References
The price of elephants	Mātaṅgalīlā -When one price is approved by both buyer and seller it was considered as the best price.
The taxes on sale of elephant	Bilhari stone inscription of Yuvarājadeva II -an elephant (offered for sale) should be taxed four pauras–“Datte karī catuṣṭayamaṃga..”
Toll free elephant trade	Copperplate charter of Kākatīya Pratāparudra of Śaka year 1244, i.e. CE 1322.