Material life and code of conduct for Monks/Sanghas

Consequently, the recommendation of the code of conduct for monks and their followers will be taken into consideration. Rules helped in regulating the conduct of individual monks along with their collective functioning in the samgha. The material background during the sixth-fifth centuries B.C. in north-eastern India determined this code. Restrictions were imposed by the code on the dress, food, housing and sexual behaviour of the monks. Rules concerning the clothing of monks are laid down in detail by Gautama Budha. These are in keeping with developments in weaving, spinning and dyeing in all of which great proficiency had been attained. Four types of clothing with the inclusion of cotton and woolen textiles, and as many as ten kinds of colour meant for dyeing^[1] are spoken about by the Vinaya Pitaka. The Vinaya Pitaka regarded clothing so significant that it devoted a whole chapter to clothing. The robe of a monk is a patchwork, for torn pieces of cloth are sewn together like the patches of paddy fields, and the colour of the robe is like that of the ripe paddy crop. Rules recommending the clothing of monks reflect some kind of protest against the possibilities of using new varieties of textiles and leather goods which naturally would be considered luxuries in the context of the early iron age, but the rejection of all clothing is not implied. Valkala was being used by the brahmana ascetics and the Jain ascetics kept themselves naked according to the existing practice. But the Buddha recommended three pieces of clothing^[2] for the Buddhist monks, which was clearly similar to that of the clothing used by an ordinary person. It has been suggested by the Buddha that the needs of the monks should be similar to that of an ordinary poor person and not a rich person concerning both food and clothing. In this way the acceptance of the use of cloth is on a limited scale and a compromise is reflected with the realities of this situation. The Vinaya Pitaka^[3] suggests that the monks were allowed to use clothing made of six types of textiles with the inclusion of cotton, wool and hemp at a later stage.

Robes, bowl, bed and medicine were the personal properties of the monks. They could neither accept gold and silver in transactions like Spartan citizens nor take to buying and selling like brahmanas. These rules were relaxed a century after the death of the Buddha, but the early rules envisage a kind of primitive communism based onl low standards of pre-field agriculture, and of pre-trade, tribal life. The code of conduct for monks partly reflects a reaction against new elements in material life which included the use of money, private property, better standards of living, etc. These were considered as luxuries in those days. A complete return to pastoral and pre-field agriculture life is not visualized through these rules. Many examples of transgressions of the rules ordered by the Buddha are recorded in the patimokkha section of the Vinaya Pitaka. Monks are punished for committing offences against family and property and the social order ruled by the king, and the laity who wants to run away from their social obligations or the punishments imposed on them for the violation of the social norms are not acceptable in the samgha. There is no place for debtors, slaves, robbers, thieves, soldiers, convicts, killers of parents and those under twenty years of age^[4] in the order. The acceptance of even ordinary householders to it is not possible without the permission of their parents.^[5]

The denial of admission in most of the categories of the Jain monk order is same as the Buddhist ones. Jainism does not allow the admission of children, the old, the impotent^[6], fools, the diseased, thieves, offenders against the state, the intoxicated, people incapable of philosophical understanding, slaves, the wicked, the ignorant, the indebted, untouchables (jumgita), prisoners, persons stricken with fear and the abducted disciple.^[7] The term jumgita is elucidated as covering those who are ineffectual because of their caste, action and body^[8] in later commentaries. The untouchables not only include matanga, fishermen (kolika), baruda, tailors, dyers, etc., in this category but also certain touchable castes who kept birds and practiced bamboo-work, acrobatics, etc. are also included in this category. The handicapped^[9] also comes this category. Although some untouchables appears in this period, the existence of all the castes and professions covered by the term jumgita was not seen in pre-Maurya times. Although in respect of admission to its Order Buddhism seems to have been more liberal, the admission criteria of both Jainism and Buddhism, by leaving some scope for the escape of the dissatisfied, helped the consolidation of the essentials of the class-divided social formation, which had emerged in post-Vedic times. Both Jain and Buddhist rules obviously accepted the new position in which significant social obligations had to be carried out to the advantage of some and to the disadvantage of many.

The rules and teachings meant for the lay followers of Buddhism took full account of the new changes and ideologically strengthened them. Gautama Buddha gave great preference to the practice of non-violence in the day-to-day conduct of the upasaka. It has been asserted that the lay devotee should perform five sacrifices, to relatives, king and the gods, guests and ancestors. The householder should also help his clan, family, friends, slaves and hired labourers and he should protect himself as well.^[10] One of the important duties of the householder include the learning of crafts; one of the earliest references is found in the Mahamangala sutta of the suttanipata. The economic functions of the housewife have been laid down by the Buddha as well. Girls and brides are supposed to honour parents, shramanas and brahmanas when they go to their husbands’ houses. The production of the crafts by their husbands are pursued by them which involved cotton or wool. They must also acquire full efficiency in these crafts, implying weaving and spinning, and full co-operation is required in its organization. They are also asked to be fully posted with the activities of the servants of their husbands.^[11] The duties of a widow are also prescribed by Gautama Budha. He asserts that it is necessary for a widow to be skilful in weaving and in preparing balls of wool so that her children can be supported by her after her husband’s^[12] death. The Buddha prescribed the economic facet of the functions for the householders and their wives clearly aiming at the stabilizing of the social order which arose in the second phase of the iron age.

Puritan monks propagated Buddhist teachings and they had a great impact on the common people. Lay followers were invoked by the day-to-day puritan conduct of the monks because this life was considered better in contrast concerning the code of conduct for the monks and laymen was distinct, the purpose of stabilizing and promoting of new elements in the material life of people was the same in middle Gangetic plains during the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.

There is no denying the fact that the motive of the Buddha’s teachings was to secure the salvation (nirvana) of the individual. It became very difficult for some individuals who were sacclimatized to the old ways of life to adjust themselves to the break-up of the old tribal society caused by new material conditions which gave birth to gross social inequalities. A way out of this state of misery was permanent escape but this was applicable only for monks and not for the lay followers of Buddhism. Ordinary people supported this new religion irrespective of the ultimate objectives of Buddhism because of its successful response to the challenge posed by the social development generated by the material conditions created by the rise of iron, plough agriculture, and coins and by production activities but not the fruits of production and so the price they had to pay was just a part of their produce as alms to the monks. The new forces of production were encouraged by Buddhism and the resultant polity and society were also strengthened which would provide alms for minimal level of existence satisfactorily.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Civarakhandhaka, Uahavagga, pp. 268-311.

[2]:

Ibid.

[3]:

Ibid.

[4]:

Mahavagga, pp. 73-93.

[5]:

Ibid., p. 83.

[6]:

This term covers both Kliva and napumsaka.

[7]:

Dharmananda Kosambi, op. cit., p. 258.

[8]:

tatha jati-karma-shariradibhirdu sito jumgitaÌ, Ibid.

[9]:

Ibid., pp. 258-59.

[10]:

AN, ii, 45-46.

[11]:

AN, iii, 37-38.

[12]:

Ibid.