Warfare and Military System in Vedic Literature

by Rinki Deka | 2023 | 39,711 words

This page relates ‘Brief Note on the Vedic Literature’ of the study on Warfare and the Military System of ancient India as gleaned from the Vedic Literature. The purpose of this work is to study the defensive and offensive systems of the Vedic people, including their army divisions, political and administrative systems, use of arms and armours, fortification, ethics and other principles related to warfare; while reflecting the social system and cultural aspects of ancient India.

A Brief Note on the Vedic Literature

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The Vedas are the most precious and prestigious heritage of India. It deals with the different aspects of ancient India such as, social, political, cultural, economic, religious, geographical, etc. The term veda is derived from the root vid, to know with the suffix ghañ or ac which literally means knowledge. The Vedas are the foundation of all knowledge. The term śruti is used as the synonym of the word veda as this knowledge was heard or orally gained. The term āmnāya, chandas, svādhyāya, āgama, etc., are also used as the synonyms of the Veda. It is considered as apauruṣeya, i.e. not composed by any author and they are eternal, nitya. The Veda is the source of all dharmas.^[1] The Veda is that insensible knowledge, which can not be gained by perception or inference.^[2]

Sāyaṇācārya in the Bhāṣyabhūmikā of the Aitareyabrāhmaṇa explains the term veda as—

iṣṭaprāptyaniṣṭaparihārayoralaukikamupāyaṃ yo grantho vedayati sa vedaḥ/^[3]

The word veda primarily stands for knowledge and secondarily for the vast body of ancient Indian literature. The whole Vedic literature is broadly divided into two groups, viz. Mantra and Brāhmaṇa. In this context, the Āpastambaśrautasūtra holds—mantrabrāhmaṇayorvedanāmadheyam/^[4] In the Ṛgvedabhāṣyabhūmikā, Sāyaṇācārya states—mantrabrāhmaṇātmaka-śabdarāśirvedaḥ,^[5] which means the sum total of words used in Mantras and Brāhmaṇas constitute the Veda. Among these, the Mantras were visualized with the inner vision of the seers^[6], and so they are called Mantras. Yāska explains the term mantra as—mantrā mananāt,^[7] i.e. the Mantras are so called from thinking. It is the oldest part of the Veda. The Vedic mantras were visualized by the Vedic seers, and so they are called mantradraṣṭāraḥ. The Mantras are also called Saṃhitās, which are the collection of hymns, prayers, benedictions, sacrificial formulae, etc. The Saṃhitās are four in numbers, viz. Ṛksaṃhitā, Yajussaṃhitā, Sāmasaṃhitā and Atharvasaṃhitā. Among these, the Ṛksaṃhitā is the oldest extent record of the human race. It is a collection of verses called ṛcas, where the different gods and goddess are praised—ṛcyate stūyate anena iti ṛk/^[8] The Ṛksaṃhitā is the very foundation of the entire Vedic literature. Though the Ṛksaṃhitā had twenty-one recensions, yet now only two recensions, viz. Śākala and Āśvalāyana are available. It consists of a collection of 1028 hymns (including 11 khilasūktas) containing a little over 10,500 verses. The Yajussaṃhitā, which contains the sacrificial formulae, is broadly grouped into two, viz. the Taittirīya-saṃhitā or the Black Yajurvedasaṃhitā and the Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā or the White Yajurvedasaṃhitā. Among these, the Taittirīya-saṃhitā is divided into 7 kāṇḍas, 44 prapāṭhakas, 644 anuvākas, and 2184 Mantras. Again, the Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā is divided into 40 chapters. These 40 chapters are divided into 303 anuvākas and 1915 kaṇḍikās. The Sāmasaṃhitā is the collection of sacrificial chants, of which most of the verses (excepting 75 verses) are taken entirely from the Ṛksaṃhitā. The Atharvasaṃhitā, in twenty kāṇḍas, contains the magical incantations, i.e. the black and white magic. The Atharvasaṃhitā at present is represented by two recensions, viz. Śaunaka and Paippalāda.

The Brāhmaṇa part is again subdivided into Brāhmaṇa, Āraṇyaka and Upaniṣad. The Brāhmaṇas are mainly composed in prose, which contain the sacrificial observances, mystical significance of various rites, etc. The Brāhmaṇas are the details of the sacrifices. According to Martin Haug, the difference between the Mantra and the Brāhmaṇa is that the Mantra is such part, which contains the sacred prayers, the invocations of the different deities, the sacred verses for chanting at the sacrifices, the sacrificial formulas, blessing and curses, pronounced by the priest. On the otherhand, the Brāhmaṇas are that part of the Veda, which contains the speculations on the meaning of the Mantras, gives precepts for their application, relates stories of their origin in connection with that of sacrificial rites, and explains the secret meaning of the later.^[9]

The last part of the Brāhmaṇas contains Āraṇyakas, which are the forest treatises. This text comprises everything which is of a secret, uncanny character and which for that reason might only be taught and learned in the forest and not in the villages.

Thus, these texts were meant to be studied in the forests—

araṇyādhyayanādetadāraṇyakamitīryate/
araṇye tadadhīyītetyevaṃ vākyaṃ pracakṣate//^[10]

The Āraṇyakas were revealed for such forest dwellers, who retired from the household life. According to A.A.Macdonell, ‘These works are generally represented as meant for the use of pious men who have retired to the forest and no longer perform sacrifices’.^[11]

The Upaniṣads are entirely devoted to the theological and philosophical speculations on the nature of things. Here upa means nearby, ni means at the proper place down and sad means to sit.

In the Kaṭhopaniṣad, the term upaniṣad is explained as—

saderdhātorviśaraṇagatyavasādanārthasyopanipūrvasya kvippratyayāntasya rūpamidamupaniṣaditi//^[12]

They are the concluding part of the Veda, and so they are called the Vedānta also. The main subject-matter of these works is to study the doctrine of self and supreme Ātman or Brahman, the highest and ultimate goal of the Veda.

Each of the four Saṃhitās has their own Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas and Upaniṣads. Besides these, there is a set of works, which are associated with the study and understanding of the Vedas, called the Vedāṅgas. They are regarded as the limbs of the Vedapuruṣa. The Vedāṅgas are six in number, viz. Śikṣā, Kalpa, Nirukta, Vyākaraṇa, Chandas and Jyotiṣa. They help the readers in proper understanding and application of the Vedas.

The Pāṇinīyaśikṣā narrates the importance of these treatises as follows—

chandaḥ pādau tu vedasya hastau kalpo’tha paṭhyate/ jyotiṣāmayanaṃ cakṣurniruktaṃ śrotramucyate//
śikṣā ghrāṇaṃ tu vedasya mukhaṃ vyākaraṇaṃ smṛtam/ tasmāt sāṅgamadhītyaitat brahmaloke mahīyate//^[13]

Among these six Vedāṅgas,the Śikṣā and the Chandas are meant as aids for the correct pronunciation and recitation of the Vedic verses. The Vyākaraṇa and the Nirukta are for understanding the meaning of the Vedic words, and the Kalpa and the Jyotiṣa deal with the method and time for performing the various sacrificial rites and rituals. The Kalpa literature is again divided into the Śrautasūtra, the Gṛhyasūtra, the Dharmasūtra and the Śulbasūtra. Each of the four Vedas has their particular Śrautasūtras, Gṛhyasūtras, Dharmasūtras and Śulbasūtras.