Śarīra in Āyurveda

Caraka samhita is an authentic book on ancient Indian medicine. Sūtra, Nithāna, Vimāna, Śarīra, Indriya, Cikitsa, Kalpa and Siddha are the eight divisions or places which are known by the name “Aṣṭāṅgasthānas”. Each division is further divided into several chapters. Each chapter is enriched with a lot of useful information regarding medicine. The approach of the text towards facts is purely logical and philosophical. Caraka Samhitha is said as originally composed by Agniveśa, one of the six students of Athreya. But the teachings of Agniveśa were available up to the eleventh century. As is known Carakasamhitha aims at longevity of mankind. It was believed that a human being has three goals in life namely dharma (charity), artha (wealth), and kāma (desire). By longivity what is meant is the maximum span of life.

According to Caraka, āyus (life) means the conjuction of the body, sense organs, mind and the Self. Dhāri, Jeevitha, etc. are the synonims of āyus Cakrapāṇidatta, an early Commentator of the Carakasamhita puts forth that the human body is made up of five elements, viz. earth, water, fire, ether and air. This view is against to that of Vaiśeṣikas who believe that the human body is pārthiva (earthly). But Caraka like Gautama, the author of Nyāya sūtra, is of the opinion that the body is the abode of enjoyment of the Ātman (Soul). When the word “body” includes the sense organs, mind etc., they are separately discussed based on their importance. Following the view of theistic schools of thought, Caraka also is seen accepting adṛṣṭa, the unseen effect of past deeds. Like Baudhas, Caraka also considers the body, the substratum of senses, mind etc., as momentary. It seems one due to the continuing nature of long chain of events. Each synonym given to “āyus” by Caraka represents different aspects of a dynamic nature of life.

In Caraka Samhita life is seen as the combination of body sense organs, etc. The disjunction of these is called the death. In Carakas view, the mind, soul and body form a tripod on which everything including the world is established.

The term “Dhātu” represents saptadhātus which are the seven fundamental tissues of the body. They are rasa, rakta, māṃsa, meda, asti, majja and śukla. The three bodily defects or doṣas are vāta, pitta and kapha. These are the three defects, thri doṣas. When the three are in a balanced state the body remains healthy and keeps growing. The increase or decrease of one of these causes disorders by which the body becomes diseased Vāta, Pitta, and Kapha represent bodily defects. Mental ones are represented by the two qualities namely rajas and tamas.

Obviously it is a great achievement that the Indian science of medicine showed such a development which has a relevance even in modern time Caraka’s contributions in this field is unequal Caraka Samhita conducts a study on focal generation and development, anatomy of the human body, function of the body depending on the equilibrium etc., in detail. It also contains etiology, classification, pathology and diagnosis, treatment of various diseases and the science of rejuvenation of the body. The diagnosis and treatment of disease are based on tridoṣa theory. Apparently, Āyurveda attempts to several aspects of body. Including the eyes, normal and abnormal deliveries and disease of children.

Though Caraka gives it what matters in a scientific way does not forget to point out the fact that the diseases get cured not only by the power of medicine but also by the grace of the Almighty. Though Caraka mentions medicines for various diseases he does not forget to note the fact that “prevention is better than cure”. The ancient seers who dealt with this subject very well knew that it will be better to keep the body healthy and unaffected by diseases. For these they recommended a healthy and hygienic life with which the modern science also could not disagree.

Suśruta samhita written by the great sage Śuśruta is really a treasure in the field of science. It was first called Śalyatantra which had five divisions, viz Sūtra, Nidhāna, Śarīra, Cikitsa and Kalpa. Some scholars are of opinion that the book that we get now is a revised edition of the original with a lot of additions and fresh information.

Following the path of earlier writers Suśruta also does not come forward to reveal his identity. Hence his date and place of living are not yet known. Out of the available information one of those that could shed light on the date of the author of Suśruta samhita lies on a dispute regarding the number of bones in human body, with Ātreya. From this it is assumed that Śuśrutha should be a contemporary of Ātreya. In Śatapatabrāhmaṇa it is believed to be composed on the sixth century BC there is a mentioning of the number of bones in human body which very well goes ahead with the findings of Śuśruta. From this he is supposed to have lived around the sixth century BC.

Āyurveda is a science of life. According to Āyurveda, life is but a constitution of senses, mind, body and soul. From this it can be seen that since Āyurveda is not limited to the assumption of physical body alone and goes beyond to mention the mind and soul, the purview of its knowledge is wide. Along with the physical health, spiritual, mental and social health also was included in the off take of the Āyurvedic teachers.

Āyurveda which plays a vital role in the field of treatment is highly connected with the Nyāya sūtras of Gautama. While analyzing the word Āyurveda it can be seen that its a combination of Āyus and Veda. Āyus stands for life and Veda is derived from the Sanskrit root vid which means knowledge. So Āyurveda is a science of life. According to Caraka, the worshipped author of Carakasamhita, Āyu means the combined state of Śarīra (Physical Body), Indriyas (Sense Organ), Manas (Mind) and Ātma (Soul). From this it is clear that Āyurveda is that type of science which wholly deals with the life of human beings. Caraka, in another context defined āyus as the continuity of consciousness.

The scholars are of opinion that by the continuity of consciousness, Caraka means the life itself. Since the continuity of consciousness cannot exist without life his assumption in this regard should be accepted.

Here in the definition of āyus the cognitive organs are mentioned separately. All these are included in Śarīra (Body) but the functional and anatomical abnormalities of the cognitive organs can be detected only of the serious examination. But the abnormalities of the other parts of the body can be detected very easily. Another problem here rises is āyus or life is stated as the continuity of consciousness, that is Caitanya. The word Caitanya as a term signifies the vitality, animation, sense consciousness, understanding, intelligence, etc. The life exist unto the existence of the body. At the time of the union of ovum and sperm, Caitanya continues un interrupted till the time of death, Cetana, in philosophy is Ātma

(Soul) Caitanya is the property of Cetana. Consciousness cannot be said existing after death. Death is the dissociation of the unified state of body, cognitive organ mind and soul. Body and cognitive organs are visible only when the life is present. The mind and soul are not perceived but inferred through their actions only. Like any other science, Caraka also attempts to the questions whether Caitanya is depended on Cetana or vice-versa. The increase in population also may be a reason for this. The contributions of Caraka, Śuśruta and Vāgbhaṭa are highly memorable in furnishing the field of Āyurveda.

In Tamil Nadu, there was a peculiar system of healing called “Siddha’ Treament. The meaning of the word Siddha is one who has succeeded in achieving his aim. Siddhas mentioned here were clever in curing diseases by using herbal plants. Even now a succession of siddhas is truly believed to be existing in somewhat remote areas of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

It is obvious that Āyurveda developed depending on the Nyāya sūtras of Gautama of 550 BC. Dravya guṇa vijñānam, the knowledge of substance and quality which plays an important role throughout Āyurveda is highly indebted to the studies carried out in the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika field. The Ayurvedins detect the diseases on account of the count of the substantial particles of Vāta (Air), Pitta (Fire) and Kapha (Cough) present in the body. Water in their balanced condition fit the body healthy. But when one of these, undergoes an increase or decrease in level the body becomes diseased. Depending on the Nyāya sūtra they have found out the material capable of bringing these three at level. Among the substances they had detected those which adhere heat and those which cold. They had also found out the materials which favored both heat and cold. Thus the relation between Āyurveda and Nyāya is continuing for centuries reasonably showing an inter-disciplinary attitude.

There are evidences in history to assume that most of the Indian Āyurvedic treatises reached the hands of the foreigners during the foreign invasion. Alopathy, the modern method of treatment, can be said as a revised or developed form of Āyurveda, the ancient method of treament. When Caraka is wholly confined to describe several methods of treating, Śuśruta includes even surgical methods of treatment. At the same time Āyurveda honestly agrees that there are certain diseases which cannot be cured by medicines.

The sublime thoughts of Ayurveda are highly indebted to the plant human relationship. Importance is given to diet in Āyurveda. Instead of completely relying on medicines, the Āyurveda suggests to control diet to keep the body free from diseases. According to them, full meals should contain six rasas (Taste). Each rasa has a role in keeping the body healthy. For instance, madhura rasa (a sweet taste) helps in body building and production of energy. They also recommend food containing carbohydrates, fats and albumin which is capable of releasing madhura rasa. A limited amount of sour and bitter tastes–tikta rasa is favorable for promoting the serration and stimulating appetite. Vitamin C is necessary to maintain electrolyte balance of the body. They have found out the food items that contain Vitamin C. In this way they have found out the effect of each rasa that can accomplish the bodily purposes.

The Āyurvedic way of treatment gained worldwide popularity due to the perfection of all its phases, none to lead to harm of any kind. Āyurvedic medicines properly used help to strengthen the powers of resistance and thus promote the health. The medicines are produced from vegetables, fats of animals and such other substances, comparatively the Āyurvedic medicines are low priced.

The Ancient Indians were aware of the fact that man is superior to all other living beings on earth. Certain vedic aphorisms stand in support of this supposition. This may be the reason why the flesh of certain animals is advised to eat. Offerings to gods in sacrifices include the flesh of certain animals coincide with the theory of Ayurvedins. The ancient Indians believed that a man in his life has four goals Puruṣārthas namely Dharma, Artha, Kāma and Mokṣa. One should not go away from the path of dharma or virtue. Artha means wealth which is advised to earn following the path of dharma. Kāma means desire and it should not go beyond the limit so as to make one an insolvent. Having let such a life a man’s soul will be released from the bondages of life which will lead to emancipation or mokṣa. When the darśanas aim at a life of philosophical virtues, the Āyurveda, more rational, being a part of science, expects a man to furnish his life more liberally but not sinfully. It would be interesting to know what according to Āyurveda is the goal of human life, becomes the way of leading an ideal life, for philosophers.

As in several other fields, the Indian thinkers of earlier period have proved once again their efficiency in proclaiming a way of curing diseases the relevance of which cannot be questioned even today. Caraka Samhita, Śuśruta Samhita and Aṣṭāṃga Hṛdaya which are known as “Bṛhatrayi contain such a lot of in formations regarding treatment which are highly identical with the modern ones. Still why the Āyurveda is not depended wholly by all is because of its conditions which are difficult to be followed. In ancient days when the atmosphere was free from pollution of any kind, an Āyurvedic way of life was possible to man. So he led a good healthy life which has become far from the reach of a modern man. The ancient sages who controlled the life of man kept silent towards certain matters though they knew well about the external and internal secrets of world. Man was advised to live with limited ambitions by which he could lead a life not hurting others. The ancient sages, unlike the modern scientists did not reveal everything since they were not longing for fame.

The word “Āyus” in Āyurveda though meant “life” it has an aptitude of covering more subtle matters concerned with physical, mental and super human level. Thus the science of Āyurveda enables one to know how to live and what to do for a good future.

Today Āyurveda has become an integral part of the daily life of thousands of people living all over the world. Āyurveda is not satisfied with simply proclaiming the methods of treatments for the diseased but it gives importance to search and every corner of life that could enlighten a man to live a happy and peaceful life. Āyurveda explicitly brings to life the concepts of preventive health care and health promotion. It enriches the learner with the knowledge of hygienic life and health. Health undoubtedly is a state of harmonious chemical balance to be kept by a living organism. A chemical harmless environment is necessary to keep the human life healthy.

According to the discoveries so far done, the earth is the only abode of life. It is being guarded by the other four elements, viz. water, light, air and ether. It may be because of this assumption that all the sacred texts like Vedas, Purāṇās, Bible and Quran speak about her fifth the great regards. Ākāśa (ether) came out first from the supreme self and is the subtlest of the five elements. From ākāśa came air, from air emerged fire, from fire evolved water and from water, earth was born. According to Āyurveda the human body is composed of these elements and it is also nourished and maintained by them.

Āyus is the continuity of consciousness that is cetana. The word cetana they denote several meanings which include life, vitality, animation, sense, consciousness, understanding, intelligence, etc., following the path of theistic thinkers. The Āyurvedic sages also accept a single soul or cetana living in a body. According to them, this cetana while consuming a body by the union of ovum and sperm lives in it until the death, uninterrupted. Since Āyurveda is science, focused towards the living body, it does not mind to explain what happens after death which forms to main subject of studying for several of theistic schools of thought Āyurveda does not forget to mention the fact regarding the existence of mind and soul which is revealed by the actions alone.

The Ancient Āyurvedic way of treatment differs from the modern one in their approach to the diseases. In the modern way of treatment, the minute particles which cause diseases are traced out and the medicine is given to destroy the powerful tiny fungi. So there is a quick cure from diseases. But now people are afraid of such use of powerful medicines if applied it would cause serious after effects in the form of incurable diseases. But in Āyurveda the treatment is against the three doṣas (harms) namely vāta (air), pitta (fire) and kapha (water).The science of Āyurveda showed its development on the basis of the tridoṣa theory. When the tridoṣas are at a normal level, the body remains healthy. A decrease or increase of any one of these three will cause diseases of some kind.

On analyzing the findings of Caraka and Suśruta it can be seen that they have mainly followed the Nyāya Vaiśeṣika and Sāṅkhya systems of philosophy to a great extent. Occasionally, the Vedantic view is taken into account. The theory of Sāṅkhyas that the five elements are made up of atoms is accepted by the scientists of Āyurveda. The Vaiśeṣika view regarding the physical world is highly appreciated by Āyurveda. Though the Vaiśeṣika and Nyāya theories go ahead with their findings, the Vaiśeṣikas attained much popularity in the field of science because of their dealing with the most modern theories of science like the force of gravitation, the theory of atoms, etc.

Vāgbhaṭa, the renowned author of Aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya, says that among the five elements by which the human body is made, pṛthvi (earth) is repository; ap (water) is the sources, ākāśa (ether), vāyu (air), agni (fire) are the accompanying process.

Though the five elements are clearly seen in nature, their existence in the body is partly perceptible and partly inferable Kaṇāda found the human body as earthly not because it is devoid of other elements but because of the presence of abundant healthy properties. But since the method of treatment in Āyurveda is mostly depended on the tri doṣa theory concerned with vāda, pitta and kapha their assumption regarding the human body cannot be one mainly focused on earth. As a science, Āyurveda is more result oriented in Indian philosophy.

Though vāta, pitta and kapha pervade the whole of body they are said to be chiefly residing on the lower, middle and upper parts of the body. When hṛdaya (heart) and nābhi (stomach) are taken as important land marks in the body region, below the stomach is said the seat of vāta (air). Pitta occupies the region between heart and stomach. The region above the heart is the boarding place of kapha. Since the human body is constituted of seven dhātus it is also the abiding place of the three doṣas.

It is obviously a miracle that at a time when all the countries in the world were ignorant of a method of treatment, Āyurveda showed its full growth in the Indian soil under the guidance of great sages like Caraka, Suśruta, Vāgbhata, etc. Branches of Āyurveda include Kāyacikitsa (internal medicines), Śalya Tantra (surgery), Śāalakya Tantra (a treatment of diseases affecting head and neck), Agadatantra (toxicology), Bhūtavidya (managing evil spirits and mental disorders), Bālatantra (peadiatrics), Āśrayatantra (gediatrics) and Vājeekaraṇa (aphro diseases).

Āyurveda takes preventive steps to keep the body free from all diseases. For this they expect people to lead a hygienic life, to take exercise and practice Yoga. Cleanliness is highly regarded by them for the cure of diseases. The preparations of medicines are done using herbal plants. The theory of five elements up held by the Vaiśeṣika is accepted by the Āyurvedic scientists. For Naiyāyikas, Indriyas (sense organs) are bhautika (physical) and mind is ahaṃkārika (some thing connected with ego).

Śarīra (body) is a combination of several particles. Etymologically, the body or Śarīra means that which decays every moment. Though human body is denoted by the names Śarīra, deha and kāya they have separate meanings inspire of their identification with the body. The word Śarīra is derived from the root śīr that means “to destroy” or “to crush”. That which decays and gets perished is Śarīra. Yāska, in his Nirukta, gives another meaning for Śarīra. The Garbhopaniṣad says “why is it called Śarīra,’ because in it lies sera to fires, namely the fire of knowledge, fire of speech and gastric fire.

Śarīra is the substratum of Cetana. Doṣas, dhātus and malas form the mūla of Śarīra. A classification of body is done according to three guṇas (qualities). When the body is divided into four namely Jarāyuja, Aṇḍaja, Udbhijja and Svedaja, two more types are added in Sakyasūtra namely Samkalapaja and Siddhija. Ūshmaja is included in Svedaja.

In Sanskrit the words are composed of meaningful parts. Amarakośa denotes body as aṅga where Ag means to go or to know. Another synonym of body is gāthra where gā denotes the movement of limbs. When the word kāya denotes the human body it can be seen that kaya notes the arrangement or order, piling up, keeping up, construct, collect and accumulate. Then body means to protect, extend, spread, spin, etc. Following a theory of other theistic philosophers Āyurveda also counts the body as an envelope of soul. They do not hesitate to declare the body as individual. So for Śuśruta, body is composed of the five elements. Puruṣa is the inseparable one in the combination of the five elements. He is Śarīrin, one who is having Śarīra (body). There also the Āyurvediṃs, following the text of theistic schools, consider puruṣa as one dwelling separate from the body though he seems inseparable normally.

On analyzing the prevailing texts of philosophy it can be seen that the importance of body is never denied by any one of them. When Kaṇāda begins his text with the aphorism athāto dharmam vyākyāsyāmah.’ Then, so, I describe dharma (charity). By following dharma one gets abhyudaya, material benefits and niśreyasa, (spiritual summit). But on all these it can be seen that the basic principle of dharma it nothing something connected with but Śarīra (Body). The author of Nyāya mañjari recognize the body use of attaining niśreyasa. Kālidāsa, the well known poet of Sanskrit, sees the body as an instrument to do charitable deeds.

The Āyurvedic scientists very well knew about the minute things regarding the body, and its relation with mind and soul. They called mind “sattva’ and mentioned the soul cetana. The science proceeds with the assumption that among these the body alone is perishable. Mind and soul do not perish. Vāta, pitta and kapha are the three doṣas of body. The doṣas that mentally affect are Rajas and Tamas. According to Taittriyopaniṣat, the body rests on the vital force Prāṇas. Prāṇas in turn rest on the body. Śarīra (body) is the locus of all ceṣṭas (activities) and indriyas (sense organs). And it is the central point of all types of experiences raised out of the objects of sense organs.

Vaiśeṣika sūtras give an elaborate description of the body. According to them the body is mainly of two types.—

1. Yonija (born of womb) and
2. Ayonija (not born from the womb).

Ayonija is of two types 1) Udbhijja (germinating from seed) and 2) svedaja (germinating from heat and moisture). Trees and plants are included in the former type and the latter includes minute worms and insects.

For Caraka body is of four types:

1. Jarāyauja,
2. Aṇḍaja
3. Svedaja and
4. Udbhijja.

Out of these Jarāyuja is one born from the utrus. Aṇḍaja is one born of an egg. Swedaja mentions those which are born of moisture and heat. The organisms of the vegetarian world is mentioned by udbhijja.

Almost all theistic schools of thought seem to have realized the importance of man in the world of animals. Man by birth is superior to all the known creatures of earth. The realization of this truth tempted the philosophers to think more in this way and to find out the difference between man and other animals. In most of the theistic texts it is being put forth that man alone can live a virtuous life and attain heaven or emancipation. In Vedas there are mentioning of several sacrifices by doing which a man is expected to attain heaven. But later when the philosophy of Buddha emerged in the world a question was raised regarding the killing of goat in the sacrifice though in the name of an offering. It was really a challenge to the orthodox way of thinking. The orthodox schools while practicing sacrifices that allowed the annihilation of animals hurt any creature were keeping a separate state of mind which could hate hurting animals of any kind. But when the Bauddhas came out with such an agitation the orthodox thinkers could not find a proper reply for their question. Saṃkarācārya, in his commentary on Brahmasūtras, tries to justify the offering of animal for the sake of sacrifice. After that almost all texts of theistic thoughts can be seen trying to justify the killing of goat in sacrifices. Further they attack the ideals of Bauddhas vehemently. Udayanacārya, the great logician, in his renowned book, Nyāya kusumāñjali, tries to prove many of the theories of Bauddhas like aphoha, kṣaṇika, etc., as going wrong.

The Āyurvedic scientists, any way, took the necessary message from the theistic schools since their aim was mainly focused on good health and longevity of human beings. Their theory was mainly based on paṃcabhūtas -the five gross elements. Man is considered a microcosm, a replica of universe “Yat piṇḍe tad brahmāṇḍe’. The combination of five elements turns to take the form of Tridoṣas in body. These three are the physiological entities in living beings. Āyurveda regards the sensory experiences as the manifestations of cosmic energy expressed in the five basic elements. It enables an individual to bring his body into a perfect harmonious relationship with the consciousness. According to the Sāṅkhya doctrine of creation, among the 24 principles prakṛti or primary nature is the basic one. The 25th principle is the male energy. Prakṛti, the female energy, creates all forms in the universe. Puruṣa is only a witness to this. The primordial physical energy containing the three guṇas (attitudes) is found in all. Thus the three guṇas of Sattva (goodness), Rajas (activity) and Tamas (darkness) formed the foundation for all that existed. The three guṇas are kept in a balance in prakṛti. When this balance is disturbed there will be an interruption in the guṇas which could result in the evolution of the universe.

That what is seen in the Universe will be in the created ones. In that sense each man is considered separate Universes. If the body and mind are kept in equilibrium the person will be healthy. This state is called sāmānya in Āyurveda. In Bhagavadgīta this state samattva is told as a symbol of Yoga. Āyurveda appreciates this state. From this it becomes clear that both the scientists aim at the healthy condition of a human being though following different methods. When the Āyurvediṃs give importance to bodily purification the others aim at the mental purification. Actually Swasthya or health indicates both the physical and mental health of an individual.