Spies in the Arthaśāstra: Conclusion

There are five kinds of saṃsthās:

(1) the kāpaṭika, described as a chātra a pupil or an apprentice or an assistant, who observes and reports to the king or the minister in charge if there be anything harmful or evil;

(2) the udāsthita, an apostate monk,who is made the centre of a network of intelligence agents disguised as monks;

(3) the gṛhapatikavyañjana, a farmer rehabilitated by the state, who has a network of intelligence agents working under his direction;

(4) the vaidehakavyañjana, a merchant similarly rehabilitated, with a number of intelligence agents under him; and

(5) the tāpasavyañjana a bogus ascetic imposing in the gullible as a great seer and thus becoming the centre of intelligence work (1.11.2.20)

There are four types of sañcāra:

(1) the sattrin, the secret agent per xcellence, who is apparently an orphan sepecially trained by the state for this work;

(2) the tīkṣṇa, the desperado or bravo, who is useful for secretly liquidating enemies of the state;

(3) the rasada, the giver of poison; these two administer what is called upāṃśudaṇḍa “secret punishment’ or tūṣṇīṃdaṇḍa ‘silent punishment; and

(4) the bhikṣukī or parivrājikā, a Brahmin nun who does the work of spying in the houses of high officers where she finds easy access because of the honour shown to her in the palace. Heretical nuns can also be similarly employed (1.12.1-5).

The saṃsthās clearly work under the samāhartṛ. For, the latter uses the gṛhapatikavyañjana and others to check the information collcted by the gopas. He also uses them to find out who among the subjects and state servants are loyal (2.35.8-15). Even the roving spies would appear to work under the direction of the samāhartṛ. For, all information spied out by them is to be first communicated to the saṃsthās, which are, of course, under the samāhartṛ. (1.12.7.12).

That intelligence agents are to work in foreign countries as well is naturally to be expected. The text, however, also mentions a special types of agent for this work. He is the ubhayaverana ‘in the pay of both.’ He is in the secret service of one state, but manages to secure service with the ruler or some high officer in a foreign state. When he wins the confidence of the latter, he may be in a position to pass on valuable information secretly to his native state or to render useful service to it in some other way. However, in order that he may not double-cross his native stat and work in the interest of the foreign state, it is recommended that his wife and children should be held as hostages (1.12.17-19). It may be assumed that every state, would be the centre of espionage and counter-espionage activity on a very large scale.

Such a highly organized intelligence service may be regarded as necessary and no serious fault can be found with the teaching of the śāstra in this respect. There can be no denying, however, that its recommendations regarding the use of the tīkṣṇa and the rasada for what is called silent punishment cannot be justified on ethical grounds. All that can be said in defence is that it might possibly save the state much trouble and expenditure if harmful elements are eliminated in this maner without creating a furore. But the danger of innocent persons being sometimes similarly disposed of cannot be overlooked. The exhortation that these secret ways are to be used only against the treacherous and the unrighteous (5.2.69) may not always be heeded in practice.^[1]

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

ibid., part–III, pp. 205-207.