Nyaya-Vaisheshika categories (Study)

by Diptimani Goswami | 2014 | 61,072 words

This page relates ‘Nature of Vishesha (particularity)’ of the study on the Nyaya-Vaisheshika categories with special reference to the Tarkasangraha by Annambhatta. Both Nyaya and Vaisesika are schools of ancient Indian Philosophy, and accepted in their system various padarthas or objects of valid knowledge. This study investigates how the Tarkasamgraha reflects these categories in the combined Nyayavaisesika school.

Nature of Viśeṣa (particularity)

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[Full title: 2. The concept of Viśeṣa (1): Nature of Viśeṣa]

Viśeṣa (particularity) is the fifth category according to Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika philosophy. Viśeṣa as an independent category is recognized by the Vaiśeṣikas and for this reason, it is said, the name of this philosophy is Vaiśeṣika.^[1] The philosophies like the Sāṃkhya, the Yoga, the Mīmāṃsā and the Vedānta do not accept viśeṣa as a separate category. Vātsyāyana enumerates viśeṣa as a separate category among the six categories, viz., dravya, guṇa, karma, sāmānya, viśeṣa and samavāya.^[2]

Viśeṣa (particularity) is the opposite of sāmānya (generality). Viśeṣa is the differentiator of the eternal substances, while sāmānya is the cause of the notion of inclusion. Sāmānya is inclusive while viśeṣa is exclusive.^[3]

According to the Kaṇāda, viśeṣa is the ultimate distinguishing factor of a nitya, dravya. All eternal substances are distinguished from one another and it is viśeṣa which distinguishes these eternal substances from one another. Kaṇāda also maintains that it depends upon intellect for its existence.^[4] Praśastapāda also defines viśeṣa as the ultimate differentiating factor of an eternal substance. “They are called viśeṣa, because they are the causes of the ultimate distinction of their substrates from one another. They are the final distinctive characters of eternal substances.”^[5] The composite things are differentiated from one another through their different parts. Actually everything in this world is differentiated from one another on account of their qualities, attributes and universals. For example, a jar is differentiated from a cloth account of its universal jarhood. Similarly one jar is differentiated from another jar by means of its colour, size etc. But in the case two jars which are quite similar having the same qualities and the same universal, it is not possible to distinguish them on the basis of quality and universal. In that case the differentiating factor is their parts. But when there are two atoms of the same class like those of earth, the differentiating factor here cannot be the quality or universal or parts. The atoms have no parts. The atoms of earth possess the same qualities and the same universal. Now, if the atoms are not distinguished, they will combine together forming are mass. And in that case the atomic theory of the Vaiśeṣikas will not hold good. Hence, the Vaiśeṣikas contend that there must be a special attribute in the atoms which causes the differentiation of one atom from another of the same class.^[6] This attribute resides in atoms and is not common to even two atoms. This is only exclusive and is called viśeṣa or antya-viśeṣa.^[7] In later Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika works, viśeṣa is regarded as residing in all the eternal substances. The eternal substances are the atoms of earth, water, fire and air and also ether, time, space, self and mind. There are different viśeṣa in each of them. Hence, viśeṣas are infinite in number.^[8]

Now, the question is: what will be the differentiator of the viśeṣas? According to the Vaiśeṣikas, viśeṣas do not require any other differentiating factor for distinguishing them from one another. If another viśeṣa is admitted to be the differentiator of the viśeṣa, then that will lead to infinite regress. Hence, the Vaiśeṣikas hold that the viśeṣas are self-distinguishing (svato-vyāvartaka). They distinguish their substrates from one another and at the same time they also distinguish themselves from each other.^[9] This self-distinguishingness is the nature of the viśeṣas and as such the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣikas do not accept viśeṣatva jāti, because that will contradict the very nature of viśeṣa.^[10]

Viśeṣa is defined by the later Vaiśeṣikas in different ways. Śivāditya defines it as that which remains in a single substance and which is devoid of universal.^[11] Viśvanātha defines viśeṣa as that difference which is ultimate (antya) and which belongs to the eternal substances.^[12] Viśvanātha himself explains in his Muktāvalī that antya or ultimate means occurring at the end, i.e., beyond which there is no further differentiation. All things starting from a jar to the dyad are differentiated from one another by differences in their parts. But the differentiator of the atoms is viśeṣa only. This viśeṣa is differentiated by itself and as such it does not require any differentiating factor.^[13] Hence, antya denotes self-differentiating. Rāmarudra points out that it is sufficient to define viśeṣa as svatovyavṛtti, because there is no other category which is self-differentiating. Therefore, the term existing in the eternal substances (nityadravyavṛtti) is superficial.^[14]

Annaṃbhaṭṭa mentions that viśeṣa subsists in the nityadravya (eternal substance) and it is innumerable.^[15] He also mentions in the Dīpikā that viśeṣa inheres in the atoms etc.^[16] The atoms of earth, water, fire and air are eternal substances. Moreover, ether, time, space, self and mind are also eternal substances. Viśeṣa distinguishes these nityadravyas from each other.

Siddhānta Candrodaya mentions the necessity of postulating viśeṣa thus:

ghaṭādinām kapālasamavetatvādikaṃpaṭādibhedakamasti paramāṇunāṃ tu paraspara-bhedakaṃ na kiñcidastya-to’nāyatya viśeṣa āśrayitavyaḥ.

A ghaṭa differs from paṭa as the component parts of the jar is distinct from the component parts of the cloth. But one atom cannot be distinguished from another because atom has no parts. That is why viśeṣa is accepted to distinguish from another atom.^[17]