Duties (Āhnika) or Moral obligation

Duty means a moral obligation i.e. a responsibility. It is an action that one is required to perform in his life. In a society, we find various types of duties which can be divided broadly as daily and periodical.The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa contains some duties to be performed by an individual. Some of these duties have been discussed in previous points. Here some āhnika (nitya) duties to be performed by a house holder will be discussed.

Getting up from Bed—

Getting up from bed early in the morning is considered to be a good habit in daily life. So, the students and common people are suggested for getting up before the sun-rise. As prescribed in the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, a person should get up from bed at the brāhma muhūrta, and he should search for the new beginning of a new day keeping in mind righteousness (dharma) and wealth (artha).

This idea has been expressed thus:

brāhme muhūrte budhyeta dharmārthau cānucintayet/
kāyakleśāṃśca tanmūlān vedatatvārthameva ca //^[1]

The Manusmṛti also prescribes this duty through the same śloka.^[2]

Bodily Purity (Śauca)—

The next main daily act is bodily purity i.e. śauca, which is considered to be very important. This helps in overall wellness of health and hygiene. This act is mentioned in almost all the śāstras including the Atharvaveda.^[3] The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa also mentions some rules of śauca. According to this Purāṇa, a person should not defecate or void urine in a path leading to the villages, to temples, to places of pilgrimage or to the field, nor on cultivated ground, nor in a cattle-pen.^[4] Also he should not void urine, or defecate or engage in sexual intercourse in water.^[5] Even a person should not defecate nor void urine while he is walking and standing.^[6] A person should never void urine against a brāhmaṇa, the wind, cattle or the sun. One should avoid urine facing north during the day and facing south during the night and during illness he should face whenever he desires.^[7] After his bodily purity one should clean the parts while cleaning the parts, he should not use the earth from inside a river or from water reservoir, from a habitation, from an ant-hill or from the hiding places of rats or from dung hills. After this one should wash the hands very carefully.^[8]

Washing the Face (Ācamana)—

In ancient times there were strict rules regarding Ācamana of house holders.^[9] So that nobody can deny washing face after śauca etc. The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa also contains some rules which are related to ācamana. For example-at the time of brāhmatīrtha people can sip or drink water.^[10] Facing the east or north, one should clean out and rinse out the mouth with pure, inodorous and holy water.^[11] One should rinse out his mouth only after washing his hands and feet. For this one should sprinkle water on his body with his face between his knees. These should be followed by drinking water three or four times after cleaning and wiping the sides of the mouth.^[12] Also rinsing out the mouth with pure water, one should perform the worship of the gods, the ceremonies to fire, respectful salutation to the teacher and eat.^[13] There are also some other occasions where ācamana is very important for that moment. For example, after a sneeze, licking, vomit, spitting etc. one has to rinse out the mouth, touch a cow’s back, look at the sun.^[14]

Brushing the Teeth (Danta-dhāvana)—

According to the Yājñavalkyasmṛti and the Dakṣa-smṛti, danta-dhāvana comes after śauca and ācamana.^[15] It has been considered as a daily act. According to Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, one should brush the teeth in the morning time only.^[16] This Purāṇa, also mentions that one should brush the teeth facing north or east side with restrained speech.^[17]

Taking Bath (Snāna)—

After brushing the teeth, one should go for bathing. According to Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, except at the time of eclipse one should not bathe at night. For the purpose of bathing perfumed water should be avoided and plain water shall be used instead. And also one should not wipe his limbs with a cloth or with hands^[18] and if one has not bathed then he should not ever apply unguents, shake his hair and clothes.^[19] It is also mentioned that a person has to undergo a bath keeping his clothes on after shaving, vomiting, and sexual intercourse and after returning from a cemetery.^[20] Also one should apply oil on his body after taking a head-bath. He is also prohibited to wash head frequently without any cause.^[21] This Purāṇa prescribes some rules for a house holder for wearing clothes. For example, a house-holder red, variegated or black clothes are prohibited. One should not remove clothes and ornaments completely from his body. For a house holder, transparent and damaged clothes are prohibited.^[22] Some things are to be given up which are used by others like shoes, garments, garlands, sacred thread, ornament and water pot.^[23]

Prayer (Sandhyā)—

Almost all the people of the world have the habit of prayer. Prayer is an act of satisfying, specially the god and also other people, for happiness and progress in one’s life. Veda, the oldest literature of the world, contains innumerable instances of prayer to different gods (the personification of nature) for wealth, long life and heroic sons and in other purposes causing progress of human life and also for protection of the cattle. The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa also contains some texts about prayer. The bath of an individual is followed by prayer. This Purāṇa refers to two time’s prayers, i.e. in the morning and in the evening of each day. The morning prayer is to be begun with the constellations in the east and evening prayer when the sun is in the west. Except in adversity, one cannot neglect the prayer.^[24] It is also mentioned that one should not worship with a single garment.^[25]

Sacrifices (Homa)—

Prayer is followed by the sacrifices. The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa only mentions about the homa. After prayer, one should perform morning and evening homa.^[26] It is seen that homas are mentioned simply, i.e. without any elaboration.

Satiating by Offering Water (Tarpaṇa)—

According to Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa after becoming pure by taking bath, one should perform tarpaṇa to god, sages and manes every day.^[27] In the Taittirīyabrāhmaṇa offering water to the pitṛ is mentioned by the term pitṛyajña.^[28] The water to be offered to gods is poured by the devatīrtha (i.e. the tips of the finger of the hand).^[29] An offering of water by the paitra-tirtha i.e. between the four fingers and the thumb is for the pitṛs.^[30]

The Five Mahājajñas (Pañcamahāyajña)—

From the early Vedic period, the five mahāyajñas are found to be the most important and prescribed duty for a house-holder. According to the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa also, a house holder should not neglect the performance of the daily five yajñas until his ability to perform these.^[31]

Offering of Cooked Food to all Gods (Vaiśvadeva)—

From the ancient times it is found that a house holder should offer cooked food to all gods before he had taken a meal. According to Manusmṛti and Āśvalāyanagṛhyasūtra, a house holder should offer food to all gods twice a day.^[32] Like the Smṛtis, the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa also mentions that one should offer food to all gods twice a day, once in the morning and once in the evening.^[33] In this context the names of deities included into the group of Vaiśvadevas are mentioned in this Purāṇa as-Brahmā, Prajāpati, Guhyāḥ, Kaśyapa and Anumati (the fifteenth day of the moon’s age).^[34] Some of these deities are also mentioned in the Pāraskaragṛhyasūtra.^[35]

Taking Meals (Bhojana)—

The duty of taking meals is unavoidable as one cannot survive without it. The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa mentions some rules for taking meals-such as, taking food one should face to the north or to the east, with his mouth well rinsed out, restraining his speech, pure with his mind intent on his food and keep the face between his knees.^[36] One should take a meal after taking a bath in the morning and the evening. He should not eat without bathing, nor when reposing, while thinking of other things, when sitting on the bed or on the earth, when making a sound, when clad in a single garment.^[37] In this Purāṇa it is also mentioned that one who provides food separately to a brāhmaṇa and a man of other caste who are in one company on earth, those persons are fed on ordure on hell.^[38]

Sleeping (Śayana)—

From ancient times a house-holder could follow certain rules of sleeping. These rules are also found in the Smṛtis. The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa mentions same rules of sleeping. Accordingly, one should sleep placing their head to the north-east or east side and not to the north or west side.^[39] At twilight one should not sleep.^[40] Also women should be avoided by people of all castes for four nights, at the time of menstruation.^[41] A man who wants a son should approach his wife for cohabitation on the even nights and who wants a girl child, on the odd nights.^[42] A man who cohabits with his wife in the morning times, he begets an irreligious minded son. Again, a man who cohabits in the evening, he acquires an issue who is eunuch.^[43]

Baliharaṇa (offering bali)—

The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa mentions about the baliharaṇa and includes it in the list of duties of a house-holder. After performing the worship properly the next duty of a house holder is to offer bali to all creatures and the gods separately according to their place. A householder can offer bali to Parjanya, Āpaḥ and Dharitrī and Vāyu from all directions. He also can offer bali to the east and other sides of the sky according to order of direction. After that he should offer bali northwards to Brahmā, Antarikṣa, Sūrya, Viśvedevas, Viśvabhūtas, Uṣas and Bhūtapati (Śiva). Again, a house-holder should offer bali to the pitṛs in the south with the words svadhā, namaḥ etc.^[44]

The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa mentions another type of bali where the house-holder offer food, flower etc. to the deities. This is the second type of bali ritual. In this bali, the deities to whom bali is offered are Brahmā, Viśvadevas and Dhanvantari resting inside the house and to the northeast side. Bali is offered also to the eastwards to Indra, south wards to Yama, west wards to Varuṇa and northwards to soma. Also, bali is offered to Dhātri and Vidhātri at the door of a house, to Aryaman outside of the house and all around the house. A house holder should offer bali to night-walking goblins in the air and standing facing towards south side and scatter it to the pitṛs, then offer water for ācamana to particular gods in the particular direction.^[45]

After offering bali a house holder should give food to dogs, śvapacas and throw food to birds which is called bhūtayajña.^[46] This type of bali is mentioned by the Āśvalāyanagṛhyasūtra also.^[47] The other type of bali where a part of food taken out when performing Vaiśvadeva are discussed under the first types of bali is followed by the Pāraskaragṛhyasūtra.^[48]

Food and Flesh Taking Rules—

The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa gives some rules about taking the food and flesh. It also mentions some foods which are prohibited. Some of these are the food which is infected with lice, which is trampled, which is looked at by dogs, which has been licked or thrown down, which has been befouled by the extraction of pus etc. Regarding fleshes it is stated that the flesh from the back, the flesh for the gods and manes etc. are prohibited. Some other food cannot be allowed to take which are not fresh, which is prepared from flour, vegetables, sugar-cane and milk.^[49]

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 31.17

[2]:

brāhme muhūrte budhyeta dharmārthau cānucintayet /
kāyakleśāṃśca tanmūlān vedatattvārthameva ca // Manusmṛti, 4.92

[3]:

yaśca gāṃ padā sphurati pratyaṅ sūryaṃ ca mehati /
tasya vṛścāmi te mūlaṃ na cchāyāṃ karavo’param // Atharvaveda, 13.1.56;
mekṣyāmyurdhvastiṣṭhan mā māhiṃsi purīśvarāḥ / Atharvaveda, 7.107.1

[4]:

grāmāvasathatīrthānaṃ kṣetrāṇāṃ caiva vartmani /
na mūtramanutiṣṭheta na kṛṣṭe na ca go’vraje // Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 31.23

[5]:

Ibid. , 31.25

[6]:

Ibid., 31.30

[7]:

Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 31.37-38; Manusmṛti, 4,45-52; 56.151; Yajñavalkyasmṛti, 1.16-
17,134,154; Vāyupurāṇa, 78.59-64; 79.25-31

[8]:

Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 31.66-67

[9]:

Kane, P.V., History of Dharmaśāstra, Vol.II., p.315,316

[10]:

aṅguṣṭhaottarato rekhā pāṇeryā dakṣiṇasya tu /
etad brāhmamiti khyātaṃ tīrthamācamanāya vai // Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 31.107; Manusmṛti, 2.18; Yājñavalkyasmṛti, 1.18

[11]:

Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 31.65-66; Manusmṛti, 2.61

[12]:

Ibid., 31.67-68

[13]:

Ibid., 31.64-65, 69-70

[14]:

Ibid., 31.70

[15]:

Yājñavalkyasmṛti, 1.98; Dakṣasmṛti, 2.6

[16]:

Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 31.22

[17]:

Ibid., 31.50

[18]:

Ibid., 31.53

[19]:

Ibid., 31.54

[20]:

Ibid., 31.84,85; Manusmṛti, 5.144

[21]:

Ibid., 31.36-37

[22]:

Ibid., 31.55,56

[23]:

Ibid., 31.43,44

[24]:

Ibid., 31.19

[25]:

Ibid., 31.34

[26]:

Ibid., 31.21

[27]:

Ibid., 26.16

[28]:

Taittirīyabrāhmaṇa, 10.2

[29]:

aṅgulyagre tathā daivaṃ tena divyakriyāvidhiḥ / Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 31.109 a

[30]:

tarjanyaṅguṣṭhayorantaḥ paitraṃ tīrthamudāhṛtam/
pitṛṇāṃ tena toyādi dadyānnāndīmukhādṛte // Ibid., 31.108

[31]:

pañcayajñavidhānaṃ tu yathāśakti na hāpayet / Ibid., 25.21 b

[32]:

Manusmṛti, 3.121; Āśvalāyanagṛhyasūtra, 1.2.1

[33]:

vaiśvadevaṃ hi nāmaitat sāyaṃ prātarudāhṛtam / Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 26.25b
vaiśvadevaṃ hi nāmaitat kuryāt sāyaṃ tathā dine / Ibid., 26.47 b

[34]:

Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 31.97-99; Pargiter, F.E., Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, p.156

[35]:

athāta pañcamahāyajñāḥ, vaiśvadevād annāt paryukṣya svāhākārair juhuyād brahmaṇe prajāpataye gṛhyābhyaḥ kaśyapāyānumatayati / Pāraskaragṛhyasūtra, 2.9.2

[36]:

Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 31.28

[37]:

Ibid., 31.34,60,62

[38]:

Ibid., 14.55

[39]:

Ibid., 31.51-52

[40]:

Ibid., 31.74

[41]:

Ibid., 31.80, Manusmṛti, 3.47, Yajñavalkyasmṛti, 1.79

[42]:

Ibid., 31.81-83

[43]:

Ibid., 31.84

[44]:

Ibid., 31.100-104

[45]:

Ibid., 26.18-23

[46]:

evaṃ gṛhabaliṃ kṛtvā gṛhe grhamatiḥśuciḥ /
āpyāyanāya bhūtānāṃ kuryādutsargamādarāt //
śvabhyaśca śvapacebhyaśca vayobhyaścāvaped bhuvi / Ibid., 26. 24-25 a
cf. devabhyaś hutād annāccheṣād bhutabalim haret /
annaṃ bhuman śvacaṇḍālavayasebhyaśca niksiprt // Yajñavalkyasmṛti, 1.103
cf. sarvām vaiśvadeve bhāginaḥ kurvīta śvacaṇḍālebhyaḥ / Āpastaṃbadharmasūtra, 2.4.9.5

[47]:

svāhetyatha baliharaṇam / etābhyaścaiva devat abhyaḥ // Āśvalāyanagṛhyasūtra, 1.2.1-2

[48]:

bhutagṛhsabhye maṇike trin parjanyādbhyaḥ pṛtnivyai / dhātis vidhātre ca dvāryayah, pratidiśaṃ vāyavedisaṃ ca, Madhya trin brahmaṇentarikṣāya sūryāya/ viśvebhyo devebhyo viśvebhyaśca bhūtebhyastesāmuttarataḥ / uṣase bhūtānāṃ ca pataye param, pitṛbhyaḥ svadhā namaḥ iti dakṣiṇataḥ, pātram nirṇījyottarāparasyāṃ diśi ninayed yakṣmai tatta iti// Pāraskaragṛhyasūtra, 2.9.3

[49]:

Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 31.56-59