5.1. The Two Categories of Mokṣa in Jainism

To understand the mokṣa in Jainism we should know first the main teachings of Jainism. Jainism teaches the two categories which are covering the whole universe, uncreated, everlasting, and eternal and co-existent. The twocategories are jīva and ajīva. Jīva is soul that is conscious while ajīva is non-soul that is unconscious.^[1]

1. Jīva (Soul)

Jainism believes in existence of soul like all other the Indian systems except Buddhism. To mention a permanent entity, soul, various terms are used as ātaman, puruṣa or jīva. Jainism, however, uses the term, “jīva”.

Regarding to the soul there are various presentation. The presentation of soul in Jainism is thus: The soul extends in space like light and it fills the space. The soul itself is formless. But it takes the form of the body, which it illuminates. The souls are countless. They are substances and eternal. All things in this world possessed souls. The all souls are qualitatively different. These souls expend and contract themselves as size of the body where they lie. When the body is big, the soul becomes big. When the body is small, the soul is small. They are according to the dimension of the body they occupy at any time. The soul occupies the whole parts of the body in which they live. Therefore wherever there appears the cause of sensation the soul can at once feel it. Every soul possesses consciousness. The consciousness is the soul’s essence and has different degrees. The lowest souls which lie in material atoms appear to be lifeless and unconsciousness. But they have life and consciousness in a dormant state.

The souls are divided into two types: trasa and sthāvara. Of them the trasa souls are those who have two senses, three senses, four senses and five senses. The soul of worms, etc, have two senses of touch and taste; that of ants etc, has three senses of touch, taste and smell; that of wasps, bees etc, has four senses of touch, taste, smell and vision; that of higher animals and human beings has five senses of touch, taste, smells, vision and mana. By the virtue of ‘mana’ the human beings are called saññi (sanjiñin). But the other animals are called asaññi (asanjnin) owing to not possessing of mana. But the sthāvara souls are those who have only one sense that of touch. They live in the atoms of earth, water, fire and air and in the vegetables.

The soul is a real knower (jñāta), a real doer (ksrita) and a real one who experienced (bhokta). The souls have body, senses and mana through which they know. All the souls in saṃsāra have their purity and power covered with a thin veil of karma matter, which has been accumulating in them from beginningless.

2. Ajīva (Non-soul)

Jainism believed in existence of not only soul, but of the things that are called non-soul also. Jainism calls them ajīva. The ajīva is divided into five: pudgala, dharma, adharma, akāṣa and kāla.

2.1. Pudgala (Matter)

Of them the first ajīva is pudgala which means in Jainism “matter”. This world is used in Buddhism in the sense of soul, while in Jainism it is used for matter. The matter exits in two states, gross and subtle. The gross matter is as things we see around us and the subtle is as the karma matter which sullies the soul.

Matter is made up of atoms which are without size. An atom is the smallest part of matter which cannot be further divided. All material things are produced by the combination of atoms. The atoms are eternal and they all have touch, taste, smell and colour. They are all qualitatively alike and indistinguishable. These atoms are regarded to house the souls.

Things perceived or enjoyed by the senses, bodies, mind, karma, and the other material objects are called pudgala (matter). They can be touched tasted, smelt, and have colour. Sabda (sound produced by various means). Bandha (union caused by man or otherwise), sauksmya (fineness), shaulya (grossness) samsthana (figure), bheda (division), tamas (darkness), chaya (shade) and atapa (sun-shine) are the forms of pudgala. It has two prominent forms, namely atoms (anu) and molecule (skandhas).^[2] They unite together to construct reality.

The nature of the universe in Jainism is based on the nature of reality which possesses triple characteristics, utpada, vyaya and dhrauvya. The things that exist cannot be destroyed and the things that do not exist cannot be originated from a realistic standpoint, but they get transformed into their own attributes and modes from a practical point of view. This system of realities results in the universe being in finite as well as eternal in character. The entire universe, according to Jainism, is a compendium of the six dravyas which are a permutation and combination of atoms. The atom in Jainology is the smallest unitary part of pudgala. It is characterized by its internal cohesion (sneha) and indivisible unity. A molecule (anu), a combination of atoms, results in an aggregate of matter (skandha).^[3] Anu is an indivisible entity and cannot be perceived by ordinary men.

Pudgaladravya is always transformed into skandha and paramanu. The upadāna karaṇa (substantive cause) and the nimitta karaṇa (external cause) are responsible for these modifications. For instance, in the manufacturing of a pot, clay is the substantive cause and the potter, stick, water, etc. are external causes. Each and every entity runs through these two causes and gets its similar modes.

Thus the universe in Jaina philosophy is undivided, uncreated, eternal, self-existent, and infinite from realistic standpoint; while from a practical standpoint of its inter-related parts it is transitory, phenolmenal, evanescent, and finite. This theory rejects all the other theories based on the absolute standpoint such as Kalavada, Svabhavavada, Niyativada, Yadrechavada, Purusavada, Isvarvada, Bhutavada, etc.

The doctrine of karma seems to have developed against these doctrines of creation. According to Jainism, the vibrations (yoga) and the passions (ksayas) of soul attract karmic matter and transform it into karmic body. Soul is pure in its intrinsic nature. The relation of karmas is a cause that makes its cycling into births. This is the nature of bondage. Soul, which is amūrta (spiritual), is affected by karmas which are mūrta (material). This concrete association of the spiritual and the material leads to the existence of universe, which is beginningless. The material karman (dravyakarman) is a avarana (cover) which brings about the bhavakarman (its spiritual counterpart) that is called dosa like privation and perversion. This is the mutual relation as cause and effect of both these karmas.

Karmas are classified into eight main types, viz. (1) Jñāṇavaranīya (knowledge-obscuring). (2) Darśanāvaraṇīya (vision-obscuring). (3) Vedanīya (feeling-producing). (4) Mohanīya (deluding). (5) Āyu (longevity determining). (6) Nāma (body-making). (7) Gotra (status determining, and (8) Antarāya (obstructive).

These karmas are sub-divided into one hundred and forty eight which may be seen in detail in Gomattasara Karmakanda etc. The inflow of karmic matter into the soul is called Āśrava and the bondage of the soul by karmic matter is called Bandha in Jainism. Both are related mutually to each other as cause and effect. Asrava is the antecedent and anterior cause of bondage. The stoppage of inflow of karmic matters into the soul is called saṃvara and the shedding of karmic matters by the soul is called Nirjarā. Evil thoughts and miseries lead to a suffering in the world as well as in hell. There is happiness of salvation.Thus the Saṃvara and Nirjarā lead to the destruction of the karmas and reveal the purity of self, which is called mokṣa. Umasvami says that mokṣa is a state of freedom from all karmic matter owing to the destruction of the cause of bondage and to the shedding of the karmas.^[4] Pujyapada in the Sarvarthasiddhi defines mokṣa "as the state of the highest condition of purification, unthinkable inherent attitude of knowledge and unobstructed bliss, of a soul which becomes totally free from the defect of karmic dirt and is liberated from the body.

2.2. Dharma and Adharma

The second and third ajīva are dharma and adharma. The dharma and adharma are here not in the sense of merit and demerit. Dharma means in Jainism principle of motion, while adharma means principle of rest.^[5]

This substance as the medium of motion is defined by Umasvati as permanent, fixed and without form. Dharma-stikaya is only one. It is not capable of moving from one place to another. The whole universe (loka) is the place of dharmastikaya.^[6]

Now, what is the nature of this substance? It is helpful in supporting the motion of souls and matter. What does it mean? It means that although the souls and matter have got the capacity of moving, yet, they cannot move unless the medium of motion is present in the universe. The medium of motion does not create motion but only helps those who have already got the capacity of moving. It is the medium through which motion takes place as for instance, a fish swims in water. Here, water does not create swimming but it only helps the fish that has developed the tendency of swimming. As water helps fish in swimming, the jivastikaya and pudgalastikava are helped by dharmastika when the former tend to move. The medium of motion (dharmāstikāya) is an immaterial substance possessing no consciousness. It is permanent as well as fixed and one. Every thing can penetrate it without any obstruction. It consists of innumerable ' pradeśa', because the universe-space possesses countless spatial units.

The auxiliary cause of rest to the soul and matter is called the medium of rest (adharmāstikāya).^[7] It is a single immaterial substance pervading through the whole of the universe. There are countless points of adharmāstikāya as those of dharmāstikāya. Adharmāstikāya is as helpful with respect to rest as dharmāstikāya is regarding, motion as a tree is helpful to a person who is coming from a far distance in the hot sun and wants to have some rest under it, and so is the nature of adharmāstikāya to help the souls and matter when they take rest. Both these substances have the capability of rest but unless there is the medium of rest, they cannot take rest. Hence, it is called the auxiliary cause of rest. Dharma and adharma pervade all the parts of the universe as oil pervades the whole of a mustard seed. The conception of dharma and adharma as the categories of substance is a unique contribution of Jaina philosophy.

The dharma and adharma are formless and passive. They pervade every part of the whole universe. It is dharma through which soul or the matter move. According to Jainism there are not any substances which could move without the help of dharma. It is adharma through which soul and matter rest.^[8]

2.3. Ākāśa (Space)

The fourth ājīva in Jainism is ākāśa or space. Ākāśa is, according to Jainism, a subtle entity which pervades the whole universe. Ākāśa is infinite, eternal and imperceptible. It is the condition of extension. All substances except time have extension. Ākāśa itself is not extension. It is the locus of extension.

Ākāśa helps other things to interpenetrate it. There are two kinds of ākāśa in one where motion is possible and in the other where motion is impossible. The former one is called lokākāśa. The latter is called alokākāśa. Lokākāśa is pervaded with dharma that makes all movement possible. Beyond the lokākāśa there is no dharma and no movement, but mere motionless there.

A reference is made to the Jaina conception of ākāśa in the tattvasangraha by the mimamsaks. Santaraksita raised a question against the mimamsakas' view regarding the eternality of works like ghāta (jar). They say that if the auditory organ is ākāśa, several objections could be brought against this theory. For instance, being all-Pervasive there would be equality of contact with all sounds and all organs. How then could the answer be provided on the basis of the auditory organ? The Mimamsakas try to reply that ākāśa cannot be regarded as being without parts, and therefore it is the auditory organ.

They support their view of the Jainas and the sāṅkhyas both of whom have accordingly the idea of the auditory organ consisting of parts—

(jainairarhataih sankhyaissca miravavayavasya vyomah nisiddhatvat).^[9]

Santaraksita and Kamalasila refute this view. They urge that if the divisible akāṣa is held to be eternal, then all the objections that have been urged against the view "the indivisible ākāśa is eternal" would become applicable.^[10]

The defects pointed out by Santaraksita in this theory are as follows. If ākāśais eternal and consists of parts, words should remain in the form "this is the same. Another argument, in support of this idea, is presented by him in the form that what is eternal does not stand in need to the help of anything. Hence, the cognitions that would proceed from the eternal source should all appear simultaneously. Therefore, he concludes that ākāśa is neither eternal nor consists of parts. In the Abhidharmakosa, ākāśa is enumerated in the asamskrta dharmas and described as "without covering" (tatrakasamana-vrttih).^[11] According to Ven. Buddhaghosa, ākāsa is infinite.^[12]

The Jainas are of view that ākāśa is eternal and consists of parts (savayava) and having infinite parts or paradises it provides to jīva and ajīva. The etymology of ākāśa itself indicates that it allows space to other substance to enter into or penetrate itself.^[13] This entering or penetration is expressed by the word avagaha.^[14] Different places occupy different locations of ākāśa. Its main fondness connotes, as in the case of matter itself, its possession of parts.

2.4. Kāla (Time)

Kāla or time is according to Jainism, one of the ajīva. It is infinite and dose not extended in space. Kāla consists of innumerable particles which never mix with another. Kāla dose not bring about the changes of qualities, but it helps the action of the transformation of new qualities on things. Time is a destroyer. Because all things are subject to dissolution of their form in the course of time.

There are two types of time; eternal and relative. The former is without beginning and end, while the latter is with beginning and end. The former is called kāla and the latter samaya. Kāla is the substantial cause of samaya.^[15]

In Jainism these six entities mentioned above as one jīva and five ajīva. They are called dravya or substance. They are exhaustive categories of the universe. Of the six dravyas, jīva and pudgala form the chief. The others are the principle of their action or the results of their interaction.^[16]

The five dravyas, except kāla, are astikāya. Because they are real in the sense just explained and posses constituent parts. But kāla or time is not a kind of astikāya because it has no such parts, though an eternal entity.^[17]

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Critical Study of Indian Philosophy, p. 62.

[2]:

Critical Study of Indian Philosophy, 24-25. 29. Pancastikayasara, p. 15.

[3]:

Ibid, 77. 31, Tattvartha Sutra, 6.2.

[4]:

Critical Study of Indian Philosophy, p. 10. 2. 33, Sarvartha Siddhi, p. l.

[5]:

History of Indian Philosophy, p. 64

[6]:

Bhelasanghatebhya utpadyante—Tattvartha-sutra, V. 3, 5, 7, 13

[7]:

Niyama-sara, 30

[8]:

Niyama-sara, 30

[9]:

Tattva Sangraha Panjika, p. 605, 2133-84. Cf. Pancastikayasara., 97 ff; Dravya Sangraha., 19ff.

[10]:

Tattva Sangraha, 2567. 112. ibid. 2548.

[11]:

Abhidharmakosa, 1.5.

[12]:

Atthasalini 160; Diologues of the Buddha, pt. i. p. 36. fn. 2.akasante' smin dravyani svayam va kasata ityakasam. Jivadini dravyani svaih paryayaih avyatirekena yasminnakasan-te.prakasante tadakasam svayam catmiyaparyayamaryadays akasata ityakasam. Avakasada-nadva. 22. athava itaresam dravyanam avakasadanadakasamiti prsodaradisu nipatitah sabdah. Kundakunda defines akasa:-Savvesim Jivanam sesanam tahaya puggalanam ca. Jam dedi vivaramakhilam tam loe havadi ayasam.

[13]:

Iv., 5. 1., 21-22.

[14]:

Akasasyavagahah, Tattvartha Sutra. V. 18. Akasasya.savaya vatvam ghatadir ivopapan-nam savaya-vama-kasam himavat-vindhyavaruddhavibhinnadesattvat,

[15]:

History of Indian Philosophy, p. 316

[16]:

HIPh, p.323

[17]:

Ibid;