11.2. The Four Foundations of Mindfulness

[Full title: Meditation, the Buddhist Contemplative Science (2): The Four Foundations of Mindfulness]

The Pāli compound word satipaṭṭhāna is translated as ‘foundations of mindfulness’. Sati in its original meaning is memory, recognition, or attentiveness, intentness of mind, and wakefulness of mind. In the Pāli text, sati is used in two major meanings that are ‘memory’ and ‘attentiveness’. The relationship between these two senses is formulated that keen attentiveness to the present forms the basis for an accurate memory of the past. In this context sati is understood as ‘mindfulness’ which needs to be cultivated constantly as the foundation for understanding and insight (paññā). In the Thirty-Seven Factors of Enlightenment, sati features in many various formulations such as the third of the Five Powers, and the seventh of the Noble Eightfold Path. Paṭṭhāna is explained in two ways, “either as a shortened form of Upaṭṭhāna, meaning ‘setting up’ or ‘establishing’–here, of mindfulness; or as paṭṭhāna, meaning ‘domain or ‘foundation’–again, of mindfulness” (The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha, n. 136).

Satipaṭṭhāna is established on four observations and contemplations of the body (kāya), feelings (vedanā), mind (citta) (mental processes), and mind-objects (dhammā) of oneself and of others. Each exercise goes in turn through two stages: the basic exercise of serenity and the advanced development of insight. The practice of insight meditation is guided in a common subject within each of these four foundations of mindfulness. First, one considers these elements on his own being, then attending to the same phenomena in others, and finally shifting attention back and forth between self and others. In the next phrase, the meditator observes the arising and vanishing of those elements. And last, he engages in repeated understanding imaginatively to view his own psychophysical processes from a second side. For this point, Wallace (2007: 114) explains very clearly that: “I view my body and mind from what I imagine to be your perspective, so that I begin to sense my own presence not only ‘from within’ but ‘from without’. Such practice leads to the insight that the second-person perspective on one’s own being is just as ‘real’ as the first-person perspective, and neither exists independently of the other.” The other important thing in practicing the four foundations of mindfulness is that the practitioner abides contemplating the body as a body, feelings as feelings, mind as mind, mind-objects as mindobjects but do not think thoughts which are connected with the body, feelings, mind, and mind-objects (see Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 125.24). The aim of this practice is to “distinguish between the phenomena that are presented to our six modes of perception and the conceptual superimpositions that we unconsciously and involuntarily place upon them, including labels, categories, and thoughts aroused by emotional reactions... Such practice leads to a kind of objectivity, perceiving things to a greater extent as they are, prior to personal conceptual overlays, judgments, and evaluations” (Wallace 2007:114). In short, the insight practice in all four contemplations of body, feeling, mind, and mind-objects as presented at the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 10) is similar to each other, except that in the later three the external contemplation, apart from those possessing telepathic powers, must be inferential.

The first practice of mindfulness is set up on the body. The practitioner does “abide contemplating the body as a body, ardent, fully aware, and mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for the world.”^[1] In such exercise, the body should be contemplated as an isolated object without any his feelings, ideas, and motions concerning it. It means that the body is contemplated simply as it is without distinguishing it as a man, woman, self, or living being. In other words, in this practice the body is observed and considered as a combination of the five aggregates, and not as a self. On the basis of the experiential insights gained in this way, the meditator continues to observe in a similar way of the other’s body. After being well-trained in such two observations, he alternates between internal and external observing, attempting to identify particular and universal qualities between the two. Apart from unique characteristics of each individual body, the physical body of all living beings shares common qualities such as combination of the four great elements (earth, water, fire, and air), foulness in the bodily parts, changes gradually since living and disintegrate quickly after dying.

And after all, the most significant universal characteristic of all physical bodies is non-self; none of them either is or contains a self. They are merely a combination of the five aggregates, arising in dependence upon former causes and conditions according to the law of Dependent Origination. By such a practice, one would abandon lust and clinging of the body and self. In addition, he breaks down the bias of ‘I’ and ‘others’ which is a barrier of development of insight.

The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta shows out two methods to set up mindfulness of body. One is exercise of breathing, and the other is practice of fourteen subjects of body. The practice of mindfulness of breathing (ānāpānasati) does not require intentional effort to regulate the breath as in Haṭha yoga, but a constant attempt to fix awareness on the breath as it moves in and out in its natural rhythm. The length of the breath thus is noted but not consciously controlled. Mindfulness is set up at anywhere where the contact of the breath is felt most clearly (normally at the nostrils or the upper lip). Generally, the aim of this practice is to monitor the breath with bare attention rather than trying to control it.

There are sixteen exercises of mindfulness of breathing.

i. Breathing in long, one discerns that he is breathing in long; or breathing out long, he discerns that he is breathing out long.

ii. Breathing in short, he discerns that he is breathing in short; or breathing out short, he discerns that he is breathing out short.

iii. He trains himself to breathe in experiencing the whole body [of breath] and to breathe out experiencing the whole body [of breath]

iv. He trains himself to breathe in calming the bodily formation, and to breathe out calming the bodily formation.

v. He trains himself to breathe in experiencing rapture, and to breathe out experiencing rapture.

vi. He trains himself to breathe in experiencing pleasure, and to breathe out experiencing pleasure.

vii. He trains himself to breathe in experiencing the mental formation, and to breathe out experiencing the mental formation.

viii. He trains himself to breathe in calming the mental formation, and to breathe out calming mental formation.

ix. He trains himself to breathe in experiencing the mind, and to breathe out in experiencing the mind.

x. He trains himself to breathe in gladdening the mind, and to breathe out gladdening the mind.

xi. He trains himself to breathe in concentrating the mind, and to breathe out concentrating the mind.

xii. He trains himself to breathe in liberating the mind, and to breathe out librating the mind.

xiii. He trains himself to breathe in contemplating impermanence, and to breathe out contemplating impermanence.

xiv. He trains himself to breathe in contemplating fading away, and to breathe out contemplating fading away.

xv. He trains himself to breathe in contemplating cessation, and to breathe out contemplating cessation. xvi. He trains himself to breathe in contemplating relinquishment, and to breathe out contemplating relinquishment

(Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 10.4)

In-breathing and out-breathing in the first two exercises is, according to Majjhima Commentary, “to be counted as the air element among the four elements making up the body. It should also be included in the base of tangibles among bodily phenomena (since the object of attention is the touch sensation of the breath entering and leaving the nostrils)” (The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha, n. 1222). At the third phrase, the practitioner does aware on ‘the whole body of breathing’; that is, in its three phases: beginning, middle, and end. At the fourth phrase, he keeps calming continually in his in-breathing and out-breathing. With the successful development of these first four exercises, one’s breathing becomes increasingly quiet, tranquil, and peaceful. Due to this, he experiences the state of rapture. This state occurs in two cases either by attaining one of the lower two jhānas in which rapture is present, one experiences rapture in the mode of serenity, or by emerging from that jhāna and contemplating that rapture as subject to destruction, one experiences rapture in the mode of insight. This is also applied to the next two phrases in which the sixth phrase comprises the three lower jhānas and the seventh for all four jhānas. At the eighth phrase, by the development of successively higher levels of serenity and insight, one’s mental formation (perception and feeling) becomes calm. With calming of the mental formation, one experiences his mind through four states of the four jhānas as stated in the ninth phrase. Gladdening the mind at the tenth phrase is either as the attainment of the two jhānas containing rapture or as the penetration of those jhānas with insight as subject to destruction. With such the glad mind, one gains concentration of mind which is either pertaining to the jhāna or to the momentary concentration that arises along with insight. Up to this phrase, the meditator gains successively higher levels of concentration as well as insight knowledge, his mind is librated from hindrances and grosser jhānic factors. At the next three phrases of the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth, the meditator successively attains the insight into the impermanent essence of formation and realizes clearly the supramundane path, nibbāna which is called the fading away of lust and the cessation of suffering. At the last phrase, one has given up defilements through insight and directly entering into nibbāna (The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha, nn. 1118-22).

The practice of mindfulness of breathing is the most primary method in the four foundations of mindfulness, because mindfulness of breathing itself encompasses and fulfils all the four foundations of mindfulness. Whenever one gets mindfulness of breathing, on that occasion he abides contemplating on the body, the feeling, the mind, and the mind-objects fluently (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 118. 23-7).

The other practice method of the mindfulness of the body is said to focus on the five subjects that are:

1. the four postures,
2. full awareness,
3. the foulness of the bodily parts,
4. elements, and
5. the nine charnel ground contemplations.

By the four postures, the practitioner exercises to clearly discern every posture of his bodily activities such as walking, standing, sitting, lying and so on. The aim of this practice is to gain “a close, constant, and careful awareness of the body in every position, coupled with an analytical examination intended to dispel the delusion of a self as the agent of bodily movement” (The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha, n. 146).

Full awareness (sampajañña) and mindfulness are the couple factor often comes together.

Full awareness is analyzed into four types:

(i) full awareness of the purpose of one’s action;

(ii) full awareness of the suitability of one’s means;

(iii) full awareness of the domain; that is, not abandoning the subject of meditation during one’s daily routine;

(iv) full awareness of reality, the knowledge that behind one’s activities is no abiding self.

(The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha, n. 147).

The exercise of full awareness is described in the Majjhima Nikāya, Samyutta Nikāya 10.8; and 119.6, as follows:

A bhikkhu is one who acts in full awareness when going forward and returning; who acts in full awareness when looking ahead and looking away; who acts in full awareness when flexing and extending his limbs; who acts in full awareness when wearing his robes and carrying his outer robe and bowl; who acts in full awareness when eating, drinking, consuming food, and tasting; who acts in full awareness when defecating or urinating; who acts in full awareness when walking, standing, sitting, falling asleep, waking up, talking, and keeping silent…

The other exercise is the analysis of the foulness of the bodily parts at which one does an observation and analysis on his own bodily parts up from the soles of the feet and down from the top of the hair bounded by skin, as full of various kinds of impurity (see Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 10.10). He clearly sees the arising and cessation moment-by-moment in each part of his own body which is filled up all foulness and impurity. Having observed thus, lust and desire of the body and of self does not arise in him. For the practice on the four elements, the practitioner does an observation on his own body as synthesized from four elements earth, water, fire, and air, known equivalently as solidity, cohesion, heat, and distension. In such temporary combination, there is nowhere for the existence of the self. This practice aims to understanding deeply the conditioned essence and non-self of the existence (see Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 62.8-12).

In the exercise of the nine charnel ground contemplations, the practitioner does an observation on a corpse and follows its gradual changes. The corpse would become day by day hideous and stinking with a lot of impure matters (see Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 10.14-24). After thus observation, one does compare his own body with that corpse until he recognizes that his own physical body and that cadaver are the same in all characteristics of tainted, impermanent and insubstantiality, and what happening to the corpse also will be happened the same to him in a very near future. The aim of this practice is to make an impression on one’s mind in order that he comprehends deeply the three characteristics impermanent, suffering and non-self of life.

In each theme of the practice of body, the meditator after having welltrained to his body continues to apply those phenomena to other’s body, and then alternates these two practices. After having completed these three phrases, the meditator forwards his investigation to the arising and vanishing of those elements (depending upon the object which he is applying). Finally he holds repeated empathy that ‘there is a body’, imaging as if he were looking it from another perspective. The aim of these practices is to develop insight wisdom which leads to the direct knowledge.

The practice of mindfulness of the body brings out the great fruit and benefit as strongly affirmed by the Blessed One:

Just as anyone who has extended his mind over the great ocean has included within it whatever streams there are that flow into the ocean; so too, anyone who has developed and cultivated mindfulness of the body has included within himself whatever wholesome states there are that partake of true knowledge.

(Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 119.22)

When anyone has developed and cultivated mindfulness of the body, Mara cannot find an opportunity or a support in him... when anyone has developed and cultivated mindfulness of the body, then when he inclines his mind towards realizing any state that may be realized by direct knowledge, he attains the ability to witness any aspect therein, there being a suitable basis.

(Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 119.23-31)

The second practice of the four foundations of mindfulness is contemplation of feeling. All living beings, without any exception, feel. In other words, as long as one’s senses come in contact with their objects, his feelings are to be conscious. Feeling can be employed as a means to develop meditation. There are totally nine exercises of the practice of mindfulness of feeling as described in the Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 10.32. An ordinary person and a training meditator is said to differ from each other in their response to feelings. When a feeling arises in an ordinary person, he depends upon which kinds of feeling either clings or rejects to them. Whereas, a training meditator of this exercise when facing to any kinds of these feelings, he neither clings nor rejects to them, but simply pays whole mindful attention on them and always keeps his mind in equilibrium. He understands that feeling actually does not come from the outside objects that he perceives but from his own psychological feeling. This is showed obviously in the case several people look at the same object but have different feelings from each other so that bringing out different opinions about that object. After attaining calming of feeling due to the exercises above, the meditator is guided to develop insight of feelings. This practice is similar to the first case. It means that one observes the arising and cessation of the three basic kinds of feelings of physical and mental pleasure, pain, and neutral in oneself, others, and alternately between oneself and others. “Or else mindfulness that ‘there is feeling’ is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and mindfulness” (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 10.33).

The third practice of the four foundations of mindfulness is contemplation of mind. According to Bhikkhu Bodhi’ explanation, mind as an object of contemplation refers to “the general state and level of consciousness. Since consciousness itself, in its own nature, is the bare knowing or cognizing of an object, the quality of any state of mind is determined by its associated mental factors, such as lust, hate, and delusion or their opposites” (The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha, n.154. The practice of mind is given in the eight paired examples which almost describe contrast states of mind that are wholesome and unwholesome (see Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 10.34). The aim of this practice is to purify the mind by way of rejecting unwholesome tendencies and cultivating wholesome tendencies. The practice of insight at this phrase is also similar to the first two in which one observes one’s own and others’ mental processes through the arising and vanishing of mental factors.

The fourth practice of the four foundations of mindfulness is the cultivation of mindfulness of mind-objects, which include all unintentional mental factors as well as all other kinds of phenomena that can be apprehended with the mind.

This practice is thus all-embracing. In Majjhima Nikāya 10 it is expounded in five headings:

1. the five hindrances;
2. the five aggregates;
3. the six sense bases;
4. the seven enlightenment factors; and
5. the Four Noble Truths.

Hindrances (nīvaraṇa) are vices that disturb the mind and obscure one’s vision of the truth. There are five hindrances namely: (i) sensual desire, (ii) ill will, (iii) sloth and torpor, (iv) restlessness and remorse, and (v) doubt. The five hindrances are the main inner impediments to the development of serenity and insight. In the Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 39.14, the Blessed One illustrates these five hindrances respectively as a debt, a disease, a prisonhouse, slavery, and a road across a desert. As long as the five hindrances present, it is impossible for one to again concentration and so he cannot enter upon the jhānas. There are, however, proper methods to deal with these five hindrances. The first hindrance which arises through attending unwisely to a sensually attractive object is abandoned by meditation on a foul object. The second hindrance, which arises through attending unwisely to a revolting object, is abandoned by developing lovingkindness. Sloth and torpor, the third hindrance, which arise by submitting to tediousness and laziness, are abandoned by arousing energy. Restlessness and remorse which arise through unwisely reflecting on disturbing thoughts are abandoned by wisely reflecting on calm. The last hindrance–doubt, which arises through unwisely reflecting on unsure matters, is abandoned by learning, investigation, and inquiry. The five hindrances are so fully eradicated only by the supramundane paths. When one enters upon and abides in the four jhānas, these five hindrances will be replaced by the five factors of absorption (see The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha, n. 158). Thus, the mindfulness of the five hindrances means exercising to abandon them. Whenever there is any of the five hindrances arise or unarise in one, he discerns each of states thus. And he also understands how there comes to be the arising of unarisen hindrances, how there comes to be the abandoning of arisen hindrances, as well as how there comes to be the future non-arising of abandoned hindrances. Such is how one abides contemplating mind-objects as mindobjects in terms of the five hindrances (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 10.36-7).

To abide contemplating mind objects as mind-objects in terms of the five aggregates, the practitioner discerns each of the five aggregates of its actual nature, its origin, and its disappearance. He abides contemplating on the five aggregates either internally or externally or both independently, not clinging to anything in the world (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 10.38-9).

Bases (āyatana) are a term in Buddhist psychology consisting of twelve kinds distributed into two classes: (i) the internal bases and (ii) the external bases. The internal bases are the six sense faculties, and the external bases are their six respective objects. Each āyatana is the domain of a particular sense, and takes in everything that can be experienced through that particular sense-door. In this practice, one needs to discern each of the six sense faculties, and each of their six respective objects, as well as the fetter that arises dependent on both. For example, he discerns the eye, he discerns forms, and he understands the fetter that arises dependent on them. It is applied similar to other five. The fetter that arises dependent upon such pairs is known as attraction (greed), aversion, (hatred), and the underlying delusion (The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha, n. 160). In such a way, he also understands how there comes to be the arising of the unarisen fetter, and how there comes to be the abandoning of the arisen fetter, and how there comes to be the future nonarising of the abandoned fetter (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 10.40-1).

In order to abide contemplating mind objects as mind-objects in terms of the seven enlightenment factors, one requires discerning whenever there is being or not being any factor of the seven enlightenment factors in him. He requires discerning how there comes to be the arising of the unarisen mindfulness enlightenment factor, and how the arisen mindfulness enlightenment factor comes to fulfillment by development (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 10.42-3). In the practice of insight meditation, the seven enlightenment factors are said to exist together in each progress of mind. Whenever one abides contemplating the body as a body, feelings as feelings, mind as mind, mind-objects as mind objects, ardent, fully aware, and mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for the world, on that occasion he establishes in him constant mindfulness. As soon as constant mindfulness is established in him, mindfulness enlightenment factor is aroused. Abiding in such mindfulness, he does an investigation and examination on his present state with wisdom and embarks upon a full inquiry into it; on that occasion the investigation-of-states enlightenment factor is aroused in him. In one possesses the investigation-of-states enlightenment factor, tireless energy is present and thus there is in him the energy enlightenment factor. When one has aroused energy, unworldly rapture arises, and on that occasion there arises the rapture enlightenment factor. One who is rapturous, the body and the mind become tranquil, the tranquility enlightenment factor thus is aroused in him. When one whose body and mind is tranquil, he is easy to get concentration and thus the concentration enlightenment factor is aroused in him. Closely looking on with equanimity at the mind thus concentrated, the equanimity enlightenment factor is aroused in him. As soon as each enlightenment factor thus aroused in him he develops and cultivates it, and by doing so the seven enlightenment factors are fulfilled in him (see Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 118.29-40). The practice of insight of each of mind-objects is also similar to the first three. It means the practitioner after being well-trained in serenity continues to develop insight of mind-objects. For doing so, he can abides contemplating mind-objects as mind-objects internally, externally, and both. He also investigates the origin and vanishing of those factors. Or else mindfulness that ‘there are mind-objects’ is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and mindfulness.

In sum, the four foundations of mindfulness is the basis of concentration (samādhinimitta). It is considered as “the bindings for the mind of the noble disciple” to subdue his habits, memories and intentions, distress, fatigue, and fever based on the household life so that he may attain the true way and realize nibbāna (Majjhima Nikāya, Samyutta Nikāya 125.23). It is for such importance, a bhikkhu is advised always reflecting himself whether the four foundations of mindfulness develop in him or not. If by reviewing he knows they are not developing in him, he is advised making an effort to develop them. On the contrary, if he knows they are developing in him, he then can abide happy and glad, training day and night in those wholesome states (Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 151.12).

The practice of the four foundations of mindfulness is the parallel development of body and mind together. Although mind and body are separate entities that have separate continuums, but there is certainly still a relationship between the quality of one’s mental state and his physical condition. The training and developing of them thus cannot be separated from each other. According to Majjhima Commentary’s explanation, development of body (kāyabhāvanā) is as insight meditation and development of mind (cittabhāvanā) is as serenity meditation. Accordingly, when the noble disciple experiences pleasant feeling, he does not lust after it because, through his development of insight, he understands that pleasant feeling to be impermanent, unsatisfactory, and essenceless; and when painful feeling arises in him, he does not sorrow, grieve, lament, or become distraught, because through his development of concentration, he is able to escape from it by entering into one of the meditative absorptions. Thus, through development of body and development of mind, means insight and concentration, all feelings either pleasant or painful does not invade his mind or remain in it (see Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 36. 8-9; and The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha, nn. 382 & 384).

The effectiveness of the method of the four foundations of mindfulness is proclaimed and assured by the Enlightened One personally as “the direct path for the purification of beings, for the surmounting of sorrow and lamentation, for the disappearance of pain and grief, for the attainment of the true way, for the realisation of nibbana.” Anyone who develops and cultivates the four foundations of mindfulness in such a way incessantly for from seven years to even seven days, is said to attain one of the following two fruits: either final knowledge (aññā) that is the Arahant’s knowledge of final deliverance, or if there is a trace of clinging left, non-return (anāgāmitā) that is the state of a non-returner (anāgāmin) the third of the four noble persons (see Majjhima Nikāya, Sutta number 10.46-7; and The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha, n. 165). Thus, if one fulfils the four foundations of mindfulness, then he fulfils the supra-mundane path. Such path must be walked by oneself alone, no any companion.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

The phrase ‘covetousness and grief’ represents sensual pleasure and ill will, the two principle hindrances of the Five Hindrances that must be overcome for the practice to succeed (see MLDB, n. 138). The analysis of these hindrances will be showed under the heading of contemplation of mind-objects.