2. Hindu Philosophical Systems (d) Vaiśeṣika

Vaiśeṣika (shenglun) advocates a theory of atomism and assumes that all things in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms. Vaiśeṣika is based on the Vaiśeṣikasūtra composed by Kaṇāda in the 2^nd century BCE.^[1] The term Vaiśeṣika comes from the Sanskrit word “visesa” meaning the characteristics that distinguish a particular thing from all other things.

Vaiśeṣika advocates that all things which exist, can be cognized and named are padārthas (literal meaning: the meaning of a word), the objects of experience. All objects of experience can be classified into six categories, dravya (substance), guṇa (quality), karma (activity), sāmānya (generality), viśeṣa (particularity) and samavāya (inherence). Later Vaiśeṣikas added one more category abhāva (non-existence). The first three categories are defined as artha (which can be perceived) and they have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined as budhyāpekṣam (product of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical kinds.^[2]

The Vaiśeṣika holds that knowledge of the nature of reality is obtained by knowing the special properties or essential differences which distinguish nine Eternal substances (dravyas): Earth (pṛthivī), Water (āpas), Fire (tejas), Air (vāyu), Ether (ākāśa), Time (kāla), Space (dik), Soul (ātman), and Mind (manas). The first four Earth, Water, Fire, and Air are considered together under the term paramāṇus (atoms), which are the ultimate atoms. Manas, though atomic, does not produce anything else, while ākāśa, though all-pervading, produces sound.^[3] The concept of soul (ātman) in Vaiśeṣika is basically identical with that of the Nyāya. Although Ātman is universal, pervading, infinite in scope, without parts, unproduced, incapable of destruction and eternal; it exists within living beings as the plurality of ātmanas (souls) from rich to poor, happy to miserable, and ignorant to wise.^[4] So this school holds the doctrine of multiple realities of atoms and souls, it is also called the school of atomistic pluralism.