Plan of the Study

This thesis is an attempt to investigate and criticize the philosophical and religious thought of the Buddha-nature as depicted in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra. In doing so, we will mention the following principle themes:

1. Evolution of the Buddha-Nature Concept

2. The Tathāgatagarbha Literature

3. The Laṅkāvatārasūtra and Hindu Philosophical Systems

4. Thought of the Buddha-nature in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra

5. Further Development of the Concept of Buddha-Nature in China and Southeast Asia

6. The Buddha-Nature in Practice

Structurally, therefore, excluding the introduction and conclusion, the thesis consists of five major chapters in accordance with the above five main themes respectively.

—The Introduction: this is a brief survey that serves as an opening to the entire thesis containing the general introduction of the concept of the Buddha-nature and the outline of the Laṅkāvatārasūtra. This part also refers to the clarification of the topic, including the object of the study and other previous studies relating to the topic. Besides, scope and method of research are mentioned. Finally, the plan of the study including chapters is also given here.

—Chapter One, “Evolution of the Buddha-Nature Concept” comprises two main parts. The first is the analysis of the traces of the Buddha-nature in Early Buddhism including the description that the Buddha-nature is the Buddhahood attained by the Buddha, and the luminous mind (pabhassaracittaṃ) presented in the Aṅguttaranikāya, it is identical with the Buddha-nature. The second is the presentation of the Buddha-nature in the Mādhyamika and Yogācāra of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This chapter will find the roots of the Buddha-nature in both Early and Mahāyāna Buddhism. From that it confirms the authenticity of the Buddha-nature in Buddhism.

—Chapter Two, “The Buddha-nature in the Tathāgatagarbha Literature”. The Tathāgatagarbha literature, one of the main streams of Mahāyāna literature, consisting of the scriptures carrying the thought of Tathāgatagarbha or Buddha-nature, is classified in three periods based on the relation of Tathāgatagarbha and Ālayavijñāna. This chapter contains three parts respectively presenting the concept of the Buddhanature in three periods. The first period contains the texts presenting the pure meaning of Tathāgatagarbha without matching with Ālayavijñāna. The second period includes texts expounding simultaneously but making no clear explanation of the relation of Tathāgatagarbha and Ālayavijñāna. The third period comprises scriptures mentioning the close relation of Tathāgatagarbha and Ālayavijñāna.

—Chapter Three, “The Laṅkāvatārasūtra and Hindu Philosophy”. The chapter consists of four parts. The first is the Date and Versions of the Laṅkāvatārasūtra. The second is the description of Āryadeva and the Laṅkāvatārasūtra including Āryadeva’s life and works, and especially his two śāstras referring to the heretics mentioned in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra. The third is the presentation of six Hindu philosophical systems (Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Mīmāṃsā and Vedānta). Study of the authenticity of the Laṅkāvatārasūtra and its mention of the heretic thought is very worthy for our attention in confirming the Buddhist orthodoxy of the Buddha-nature, which is akin to the doctrine of Brahman presented in the Vedānta’s scriptures. The four is the comparison between the Buddha-Nature and Brahman in order to highlight that the Buddha-nature is chronologically prior to Brahman. This chapter is to elucidate that the Vedāntins probably borrowed, imitated or secretly copied the Buddhist doctrine of the Buddha-nature as depicted in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra and other Tathāgatagarbha texts, and then provided it a new name Brahman as if it were their own doctrine.

—Chapter Four, “The Thought of Buddha-nature in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra”. This is the key chapter of the topic, divided into four major parts. The first analyzes the concept of Ālayavijñāna and Tathāgatagarbha in the relation with the system of consciousnesses. The second presents the concept of Tathāgatagarbha and Ātman. The Ātman here consists of two kinds: the ego-soul of the heretics and the true-self (śuddhisatyātman) as the Buddha-nature. The third discusses the Concept of Buddhatā, i.e. the Essence of the Buddha, including the mention of Twofold Hindrance and Ego, Twofold Death, and Twofold Group of Passions. The fourth presents the Buddha-Nature as Dharmakāya. This is the exposed state of the Buddha-nature in the Buddha. This chapter helps us to understand the thought of Buddha-nature as the nucleus of the sūtra.

—Chapter Five, “The Practice of Buddha-nature in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra”, contains two parts. Firstly, the section “Sudden Enlightenment, Gradual Cultivation and the Revulsion” analyzes the enlightenment, which is always sudden and total and needs the revulsion of the mind, but before and after enlightenment there are the gradual cultivations. Secondly, it is the “Self-power and Other-power”. Although the Laṅkāvatārasūtra emphasizes on self-power in self-realization of Buddha-nature, it asserts that the power added by the Buddhas is indispensable.

—Chapter Six, the “Further Development of the Thought of Buddha-Nature in China” consists of three parts. Firstly, “The Daosheng’s Thought of Buddha-Nature” comprises the Daosheng and the Nirvāṇa School, the Daosheng’s Doctrines of Buddha-nature and Sudden Enlightenment, and Daosheng as the theoretical forerunner of Chan. Secondly, the “Buddha-Nature and Chan Buddhism” refers to the Thought of Buddha-nature in Chan, Chan and the Laṅkāvatārasūtra, and the Buddha-nature in gongan and mozhao Chan. The Relation of the Buddha-nature and Chan practice such as the Direct-pointing, gongan, huatou and mozhao are respectively presented in this part. Thirdly, the Buddha-Nature Thought in the Tiantai School investigates Zhanran (711-782 CE) and the doctrine of “Inanimate having Buddha-nature”. Zhanran was the sixth patriarch of the Tiantai School in China, who held that the Buddha-nature is to be found even in inanimate things such as mountains, rivers, or the tiniest particle of dust. Fourthly, the Buddha-Nature Thought in the Huayan School presents the Buddha-nature is the same as the thought of Dharmadhātu and Tathatā in the Avataṃsakasūtra.

—The Conclusion: it is in three parts. The first is a summary of what has been presented, highlights some important issues such as the identification of Tathāgatagarbha and Ālayavijñāna in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra and the orthodox of the Buddha-nature doctrine. The second talks about the “Buddha-nature: solution to Individual and Social Problems”. The third presents the new approach to the Buddha-nature in modern life by simplifying languages relating to the Buddha-nature, and taking into action the wisdom and compassion of the Buddha-nature in daily life through meditation and social working.